(Chapter 18)
Optimal Dividend Policy Conflicting Theories Other Dividend Policy Issues Residual Dividend Theory Stable Growth in Dividend Policy Some Additional Considerations Stock Dividends and Stock Splits Stock Repurchases
The optimal dividend policy should maximize the price of the firms stock holding the number of shares outstanding constant.
D1 P0 ke g
A decision to increase dividends will raise D1 putting upward pressure on P0. Increasing dividends, however, means reinvesting fewer dollars, lowering g, and putting downward pressure on P0.
Problem: What is the correct balance between dividends and retained earnings?
Conflicting Theories
High Dividends Increase Stock Value: (Bird-in-the-Hand Theory) Dividends are less risky. Therefore, high dividend payout ratios will lower ke (reducing the cost of capital), and increase stock price.
Low Dividends Increase Stock Value: (Tax Preference Theory) Dividends received are taxable in the current period. Taxes on capital gains, however, are deferred into the future when the stock is actually sold. In addition, the maximum tax rate on capital gains is usually lower than the tax rate on ordinary income. Therefore, low dividend payout ratios will lower ke (reducing the cost of capital), raise g, and increase stock price.
Evidence:
No conclusive proof, one way or another. Difficult to hold the rest of the world constant while we study dividend policy. Cannot measure the cost of equity (ke) with a high degree of accuracy.
Clientele Effect: Investors needing current income will be drawn to firms with high payout ratios. Investors preferring to avoid taxes will be drawn to firms with lower payout ratios. (i.e., firms draw a given clientele, given their stated dividend policy). Therefore, firms should avoid making drastic changes in their dividend policy. Information Content: Changes in dividend policy may be signals concerning the firms financial condition. A dividend increase may signal good future earnings. A dividend decrease may signal poor future earnings.
Retain and reinvest earnings as long as returns on the investments exceed the returns stockholders could obtain on other investments of comparable risk. This concept is illustrated graphically below. A corporation should retain all necessary earnings to invest up to the level indicated by the intersection of the MCC (marginal cost of capital) and IOS (investment opportunity schedule) functions. Residual earnings are distributed to shareholders. Percent
20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 10 20
MCC
IOS
30
Most corporations attempt to maintain a stable growth in dividend policy: Many financial institutions invest only in companies with regular dividend payments. Perhaps leads to higher stock prices: (Lower risk - lower ke - higher P0)
D1 P0 ke g
As a result, dividends tend to be a function of the sustainable growth in earnings.
EPS DPS
Year
19 94 19 95 19 96 19 97 19 98 19 99 20 00 20 01 20 02
Legal Restrictions: Dividends cannot be paid out of the permanent capital accounts. Liquidity: Retained earnings and cash are not identical. Access to other sources of financing. Stability of earnings. Restrictions in debt contracts.
Ownership Control: Smaller firms may be averse to issuing new stock due to dilution of corporate control. Therefore, retain earnings and pay few dividends. Inflation: Since replacement costs of assets are higher in inflationary periods, more retention of earnings may be required. Dividend Reinvestment Plans: Investors can automatically reinvest dividends often at a discount with no transaction costs. Frequently a good investment tool. Companies may use these plans to raise additional equity capital.
Stock Dividends
Accounting for stock dividends: Retained Earnings xxxx Common Stock xxxx Paid-in-Capital xxxx The market value of the stock dividend is taken out of retained earnings and placed into the permanent capital accounts.
Stock Splits
No changes in the capital accounts. Par value decreased. Number of shares outstanding increased.
Everything else remaining the same, stock dividends and stock splits do not increase stockholder wealth. Perhaps, however, they are beneficial in the long-run due to the optimal price range concept. Price may rise, however, if other variables also change (e.g., cash dividends increase, higher expected future earnings)
Alternative to cash dividends: Shares outstanding are reduced, EPS increases, and if the P/E does not change, the stock price increases. (i.e., capital gains are substituted for cash dividends). Stock repurchases may be a sound strategy for firms with temporary excess cash. Share price too low: Outstanding shares may be repurchased to drive the stock price up to a more appropriate level. Change the capital structure quickly: Issue debt and use the proceeds to buy back outstanding stock.