The training of cross-cultural competence and skills WS 2001 / 2002 Prof. Dr. Beneke
Contents
1. Introduction 2. General Oberg-based models: U- and W-curve 3. Reasons 4. Symptoms 5. Possible Outcomes 6. Specific Groups, Motives & Problems 7. New Models and Criticism 8. Preparation, Training and Coping Strategies 9. Bibliography
Introduction
"Culture shock might be called an occupational disease of people who have been suddenly transplanted abroad.
(Oberg 1960: p. 185)
Introduction
When you are transferred to another culture, you lose all your familiar symbols and values as well as the framework of communication.
When do you shake hands? How long do you keep eye contact?
and so on
The foreigner feels like a fish out of water.
Oberg (1960): p. 185
U - Curve
+
1. Euphoria 2. Culture shock 3. Acculturation 4. Stable state
Feelings
Time
1.
2.
3.
4.
Hofstede (1997): p. 210
W - Curve
host culture
Reasons
The "software of the mind" (Hofstede) does not work in a different cultural environment.
cultural dimensions
Symptoms
- depression, feeling of helplessness - hostility towards the host culture and its members - home sickness - fear of physical contact with host culture members and items (such as water for drinking and washing, food, medical assistance...) - Foreigners often join together to complain about the host culture and strengthen their mutual belief that it is evil and responsible for their problems. - stereotyping
Possible Outcomes
High
Assimilation
Integration / Multiculturalism
High
Low
Marginalisation
Separation
Low
Possible Outcomes
Assimilation: The culture traveller rejects his culture of origin and adapts to the host culture, completely converting to its norm, values and behaviours.
Separation: The host culture is rejected and the norms of the original culture are strengthened. This leads to segregation, ethnocentrism and racism.
Possible Outcomes
Marginalisation: Both cultures are perceived as being equal, but mutually incompatible. The culture traveller doesn't feel at home in neither his original nor his host culture.
Integration: Both cultures are perceived as being equal AND mutually compatible. The sojourner becomes multicultural and feels at home in both his original and host culture.
Tourists
There are several types of tourists with different motives for visiting a foreign country:
culture contact
low high
mass tourists
backpackers
Student Sojourners
International students experience various difficulties: problems other cultural travellers have as well problems related to their studies financial problems homesickness, loneliness language problems social problems
Business Sojourners
[...] there are large numbers of expatriates; they provide the human link in international business; and their effectiveness has a direct impact on the profitability and often the viability of international commerce. That is why business travellers are also the sojourner group most likely to receive at least some pre-departure cultural orientation and training [...]
(Ward, Furnham, Bochner (2001): p. 168)
Problems
culturally influenced management and working styles DILEMMA
Immigrants
Immigrants are pulled towards a new country mainly due to personal motives such as
Problems
obstacles concerning economic success, unemployment,menial jobs
language problems
difficulties within the family (children parents relationship, values)
Refugees
Unlike immigrants, sojourners or tourists, however, the relocation of refugees is involuntary. Rather than being pulled by the attractiveness of a new host host culture, refugees are pushed into an alien environment.
(Ward, Furnham, Bochner (2001): p. 221)
Motives
Escape threatening circumstances such as war, famine, torture, loss of family members, etc. premigration trauma
Problems
the most disadvantaged group stressful premigration experiences involuntary relocation (push instead of pull); often unanticipated and therefore disruptive (poor or no preparation), homesickness poor or no language skills, no financial resources
Affective
Behavioural
Cognitive
Cognitive: Cultural differences lead to problems with social identity: how people perceive themselves and others, in- and outgrouping and stereotyping.
- It is possible and advisable to let sojourners receive at least some pre-departure preparation and training.
- Also on-site mentoring (business people, students) and psychological treatment are useful in dealing with culture shock. -careful selection of candidates for positions abroad (positive and negative characteristics, willingness to stay abroad, family)
- The motives of sojourners are often ignored and their will to go abroad is often overestimated. - The expectations of expatriates should be realistic. - There are numerous possibilities for training sojourners. We already heard about these in this seminar (culture general / culture specific training, simulations, cultural assimilator...).
Bibliography
Hofstede, Geert (1997): Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind. New York: McGraw-Hill. Maletzke, Gerhard (1996): Interkulturelle Kommunikation. Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag. Oberg, Kalvero (1960): Culture Shock and the Problem of Adjustment in New Cultural Environments. In: Weaver, Gary R. (Ed.)(1998): Culture, Communication and Conflict. Readings in Intercultural Relations. Needham Heights, MA: Simon & Schuster Publishing. Ward, Colleen/Bochner, Stephen/Furnham, Adrian (2001): The Psychology of Culture Shock. Hove, East Sussex: Routledge. Marx, Elisabeth (2000): Vorsicht Kulturschock. So wird Ihr beruflicher Auslandseinsatz zum Erfolg. Frankfurt/New York: Campus Verlag.