CHAPTER 1 -INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKING

BASIC CONCEPTS OF COMPUTER NETWORKS

Network
Computer and devices, connected by some type of media. Two computers to thousands of computers connected across the world via the Internet. Networks may link mainframe computers, desktop computers, printers, plotters, fax machines, and phone systems.

Network (cont.)
Manage and administer resources on multiple computer from one location. Networks allow multiple users to share devices and resources such as: - printers - faxes - program and files

ADVANTAGES OF NETWORKING
File Sharing : The major advantage of a computer network is that is allows file sharing and remote file access. A person sitting at one workstation of a network can easily see the files present on the other workstation. Resource Sharing : If there are four people in a family, each having their own computer, they will require four modems (for the Internet connection) and four printers, if they want to use the resources at the same time. A computer network, on the other hand, provides a cheaper alternative by the provision of resource sharing.

 Increased Storage Capacity : As there is more than one computer on a network which can easily share files, the issue of storage capacity gets resolved to a great extent. When many computers are on a network, memory of different computers can be used in such case. One can also design a storage server on the network in order to have a huge storage capacity. Increased Cost Efficiency : There are many software's available in the market which are costly and take time for installation. Computer networks resolve this issue as the software can be stored or installed on a system or a server and can be used by the different workstations.

Types of Network
Peer-to-Peer Client / Server

Peer-to-Peer Networks
Peer-to-peer networks : Resource sharing, processing, and communication controls are fully decentralized often called a workgroup. All clients are given equal importance in using the network resources and users are individually authenticated by workstations. No fixed clients and servers.

Peer-to-Peer Networks

Client / Server Networks

Client/server networks It is a network where the servers provide services to different clients. A centralized server provides client authentication services. Servers play a key role in managing several applications like access to shared files, printers, and hardware.

Client/Server Networks

LANs, MANs and WANs

There are three main categories of networks: Local Area Network (LAN) is a relatively small network of computers, printers, and other devices in single building or floor. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a high-speed internetwork of LANs across a metropolitan area. Wide Area Network (WAN) traditionally connects LANs using the PSTN(Public Switched Telephone Network) or more commonly the Internet. To provide connectivity over a large geographic area.

Local Area Network (LAN)

LAN characteristics: They are used within small areas ( such as in an office building). They offer high-speed communication-typically 100Mbps or faster. They provide access for many devices. They use LAN- specific equipment such as hub and NICs.

Metropolitan Area Network

MAN characteristics: Sites are dispersed across a city and perhaps the surrounding area as well. With the advent of MANs, historically slow connection (56Kbps-1.5Mbps) have given way to communication at hundreds of megabits per second and even gigabit speeds. They use devices such as routers, telephone switches, and microwave antennas as part of their communication infrastructure,

Wide Area Network

WAN characteristics : They can cover a very large geographic area even span the world. They usually communicate at slow speed (compared to LANs). They use devices such as routers, modems, and WAN switches, connectivity devices specific to LANs and used to connect to long-haul transmission media.

Common Network Element

Client A computer on the network that requesting resources or services. Server A computer on the network that manages network access and shared resources. Network Interface Card (NIC) A device inside a computer that connects a computer to the network media. Network Operating System(NOS) Server that enable a computer to control network access and manage resources. The most popular NOS are Microsoft Windows Server, Novell NetWare and UNIX. Host A device that provides resource sharing for other computers on the same network.

Common Network Elements (cont.)

Node A device such as, client, server, or other network equipment that is identified by a unique network address. Topology The physical layout of a computer network. Network topology can be a ring, bus or star formation, or hybrid combinations. Backbone The backbone of a network (Cable) that combines smaller network into a large network. Transmission Media Media that carrying the network signal (cable/channel) Connectivity Devices - Modems, repeaters, bridges, routers, switch, hub and etc. Segment It is a physical partitioning of network.

Network Topologies
Network topology is the layout pattern of interconnections of the various elements (cable, nodes, etc.) of a computer network.
Bus Ring Star Hybrid Mesh

BUS
Connect two or more computer using coaxial cable and BNC connector. Terminator are installed on both ends of the cable. Without the terminator, the electrical signal that represent the data would reached the end of cooper wire and bounce back, causing errors on the network. Advantages : inexpensive to install, can easily add more workstation. Disadvantages : If the cable break down, the network is down, access time and network performance degrade as devices are added to the network.

Bus Topology

RING
Computer are connected in a ring (circle). It has no beginning or end, so there is no need to terminate the cable. Every device have an equal advantage in accessing the media. Advantages : There are no collisions , no terminators are needed, easy to locate and correct problems with devices and cable. Disadvantages : requires more cable than a bus network, a break in the cable brings the entire network down.

Ring Topology

STAR
All computer are connected to a central point such as hub or switch The most common topology used today Data on a star topology passes through the hub or switch before continuing to its destination. Advantages : Cable failure will not disrupt the network. Disadvantages : Single point of failure.

Star Topology

Hybrid
Combination of any two or more different topologies. The most commonly used topologies are StarBus or Star-Ring. Advantages : If a computer fails, it will not affect the rest of the network Disadvantages : If the central component, or hub, that attaches all computers in a star, fails, no computer will be able to communicate.

Mesh
All computer are connected to every other computer on the network Rarely used on a Local Area Network (LAN) The topology of the Internet. Advantages : Very redundant. No disruption when expanded. Disadvantages : Expensive. Requires a lot of cable and network interface cards.

Networking Standards Organizations

Organizations that set standards for networking: American National Standards Institute (ANSI) Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA) and Telecommunication Industry Association (TIA) Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) International Organization for Standardization (ISO) International Telecommunication Union (ITU) Internet Society (ISOC) Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) and Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN)

Main Elements Of Data Communication Systems

Communication devices: wired devices eg data terminal equipment (DTE), data circuit-terminating equipment (DCE); wireless devices eg 3G, GPRS, mobile phone, laptop, netbook Data elements: checksum eg cyclic redundancy check (CRC); encapsulation eg frames, packets, datagrams; addresses; sequence numbers Electronic communication: methods eg simplex, duplex, half-duplex communication, parallel, universal serial bus, serial, infra red, Bluetooth, WiFi, 3G Transmission: methods eg coaxial, optical fibre, unshielded twisted pair (UTP), shielded twisted pair (STP), infrared, radio, microwave, satellite

Data Transmission
Basic Data Transmission Concept : Analog and Digital Signaling Data Modulation Simplex, Half-Duplex and Full-Duplex Transmission Multiplexing Point-to-Point Transmission

Broadcast
Throughput Bandwidth

Analog and Digital Signal

Analog Signaling - Analog Signal is a continuous electrical signal in the form of a wave and it is called as a carrier wave. Digital Signaling - Digital signal consists of individual electrical pulses that represent bits grouped together into bytes.

Transmission Basics

Example of an analog signal

Example of digital signal

Modulation
Modulation is the process of varying a carrier signal, in order to use that signal to convey information. (Technique for formatting signals)
When a binary data is receive by a analog signal, it will be change to a form that can be understood by the computer. This is called modulation and in otherwise called demodulation. A device that performs modulation is known as a modulator and a device that performs demodulation is known as a demodulator. A device that can do both operations is a modem.

Transmission Direction
Simplex
Only one of a two section can transmit; the other can only receive.

Half-duplex
Each station can both transmit and receive. But not at the same time. When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa

Full-duplex
Both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously.

Multiplexing
Multiplexing
Allows multiple signals to travel simultaneously over one medium For each type of multiplexing: Multiplexer (mux) is required at sending end of channel Demultiplexer (demux) separates the combined signals and regenerates them in original form

1 path M U X 4 channels D E M U X

a. No multiplexing

b. Multiplexing

Point-to-Point and Broadcast

Point-to-Point Transmission
Transmission involving one transmitter and one receiver

Broadcast Transmission
Transmission involving one transmitter and multiple receivers

Point-to-Point and Broadcast

Point-to-point versus broadcast transmission

Throughput and Bandwidth

Throughput is amount of data the medium can
transmit during a given period of time

Bandwidth measures difference between

highest and lowest frequencies a media can transmit.

Transmission Flaws
Common transmission flaws affecting data signal : Noise Attenuation Latency

Transmission Flaws : Noise

Noise
Any undesirable influence degrading or distorting signal

Types of noise
EMI (electromagnetic interference)
EMI/RFI (radiofrequency interference)

Cross talk
Potential cause: improper termination

Transmission Flaws : Noise

Figure 4-11: An analog signal distorted by noise

Transmission Flaws : Noise

Figure 4-12: A digital signal distorted by noise

Transmission Flaws : Attenuation

Attenuation
Loss of signals strength as it travels away from source

Signal boosting technology

Analog signals pass through amplifier Repeater: device regenerating digital signals

Transmission Flaws : Latency

Latency
Delay between signal transmission and receipt

Causes
Cable length

RTT (round trip time)

Time for packet to go from sender to receiver, then back from receiver to sender

May cause network transmission errors

Rules of Communication
Protocols are rules that govern a communication exchange. Establish a link Issue a command and command qualifier Acknowledgment of command Dissection messages Error detection and correction Termination of transmission

Various Types Of NIC

Those that are installed on an expansion board inside a computer. Those that are installed to the computers externally (USB Port, FireWire) On-board NIC Wireless NIC

Access And Distribution Layer

The hierarchical design has three basic layers:
Access Layer - to provide connections to hosts in a local Ethernet network. Distribution Layer - to interconnect the smaller local networks. Core Layer - a high-speed connection between distribution layer devices.

Access Layer
The Access Layer provides a connection point for end user devices to the network and allows multiple hosts to connect to other hosts through a network device, usually a hub or switch. Typically, all devices within a single Access Layer will have the same network portion of the IP address. If a message is destined for a local host, based on the network portion of the IP address, the message remains local. If it is destined for a different network, it is passed up to the Distribution Layer. Hubs and switches provide the connection to the Distribution Layer devices, usually a router.

Distribution Layer
The Distribution Layer provides a connection point for separate networks and controls the flow of information between the networks. It typically contains more powerful switches than the Access Layer as well as routers for routing between networks. Distribution Layer devices control the type and amount of traffic that flows from the Access Layer to the Core Layer.

Broadcast Messaging
When hosts are connected using either a hub or a switch, a single local network is created. Within the local network it is often necessary for one host to be able to send messages to all the other hosts at the same time. This can be done using a message known as a broadcast. Broadcasts are useful when a host needs to find information without knowing exactly what other host can supply it or when a host wants to provide information to all other hosts in the same network in a timely manner. A message can only contain one destination MAC address. So, how is it possible for a host to contact every other host on the local network without sending out a separate message to each individual MAC? To solve this problem, broadcast messages are sent to a unique MAC address that is recognized by all hosts. The broadcast MAC address is actually a 48-bit address made up of all ones. Because of their length, MAC addresses are usually represented in hexadecimal notation. The broadcast MAC address in hexadecimal notation is FFFF.FFFF.FFFF. Each F in the hexadecimal notation represents four ones in the binary address.

 When a host receives a message addressed to the broadcast address, it accepts and processes the message as though the message was addressed directly to it. When a host sends a broadcast message, hubs and switches forward the message to every connected host within the same local network. For this reason, a local network is also referred to as a broadcast domain. If too many hosts are connected to the same broadcast domain, broadcast traffic can become excessive. The number of hosts and the amount of network traffic that can be supported on the local network is limited by the capabilities of the hubs and switches used to connect them. As the network grows and more hosts are added, network traffic, including broadcast traffic, increases. It is often necessary to divide one local network, or broadcast domain, into multiple networks to improve performance. Router interfaces do not forward messages that are addressed to the broadcast MAC address. As a result, local network broadcasts are not sent across routers to other local networks.

MAC and IP
NIC only accepts a frame if the destination address is either the broadcast MAC address, or the MAC address of the NIC. What if a sending host only has the logical IP address of the destination host? How does the sending host determine what destination MAC address to place within the frame? The sending host can use an IP protocol called address resolution protocol (ARP) to discover the MAC address of any host on the same local network.

Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)

ARP uses a three step process to discover and store the MAC address of a host on the local network when only the IP address of the host is known. 1. The sending host creates and sends a frame addressed to a broadcast MAC address. Contained in the frame is a message with the IP address of the intended destination host. 2. Each host on the network receives the broadcast frame and compares the IP address inside the message with its configured IP address. The host with the matching IP address sends its MAC address back to the original sending host. 3. The sending host receives the message and stores the MAC address and IP address information in a table called an ARP table. Once the sending host has the MAC address of the destination host in its ARP table, it can send frames directly to the destination without doing an ARP request.

LAN Connectivity Hardware

Hub - Hubs contain multiple ports that are used to connect hosts to the network. Hubs forward message to all host. A hub is referred to as a sharedbandwidth device. Switch - a switch connects multiple hosts to the network. A switch can forward a message to a specific host. Other hosts attached to the switch do not share bandwidth on this channel and do not receive messages that are not addressed to them.

 Routers - A router is a networking device that connects a local network to other local networks. A network host that reads the source and destination addresses in the packet header and make decisions about where to forward packet. Wireless access points - A device that allows wireless devices to connect to a wired network using Wi-Fi, Bluetooth or related standards. The WAP usually connects to a router (via a wired network), and can relay data between the wireless devices (such as computers or printers) and wired devices on the network.