Chapter 2

Rocks and Minerals: A First Look

The differences in the physical properties of rocks, minerals, and soils determine their suitability for different purposes extraction of water or of metals, construction, manufacturing, waste disposal, agriculture, and other uses

Illinois Fluorite, photo by J. Carr

Atoms
Smallest particle into which an element can be divided while still retaining the chemical characteristics of that element Composed of a nucleus surrounded by electrons
Nucleus is composed of protons (+) and neutrons (0) Number of protons defines the chemical element and atomic number ( H = 1, He = 2, Li = 3, ) Number of neutron adds mass to the atom Number of electrons (-) orbiting nucleus determined by the number of positively charged protons; Negatively charged electrons balance the positive charges of the protons

Figure 2.1 Schematic drawing of atomic structure

Elements and Isotopes

Element substance composed of atoms with the same number of protons All nuclei, except the simplest hydrogen atoms, contain neutrons The number of neutrons is similar to or somewhat greater than the number of protons Isotopes number of neutrons for an element may not be the
same; variable numbers of neutrons possible Atomic Mass Number is the number of protons and neutrons in the elements nucleus Some isotopes have more neutrons and are heavier (carbon-14 has 6 protons and 8 neutrons) Some isotopes have fewer neutrons and are lighter (carbon12 has 6 protons and 6 neutrons)

Ion
An atom that is positively charged or negatively charged
Anion has gained electrons (-); has more electrons relative to the number of protons (+) Cation has lost electrons (-); has fewer electrons relative to the number of protons (+)

The electrical attraction of ions will cause an ionic bond to form between oppositely charged ions.
Na+ + Cl- = NaCl (halite)

Compounds
Mixing of two or more chemical elements in particular proportions that have distinctive physical properties Elements will bond because of electrical attraction, forming ionic bonds, or the atoms may share electrons, forming covalent bonds

MINERALS
Naturally occurring Inorganic Solid element or compound Definite chemical composition Regular internal crystal structure Identified by recognizing different physical properties

Figure 2.3A

Figure 2.3B

Identifying Minerals
The two fundamental characteristics of a mineral are its chemical composition and its crystal structure Analyze the mineral composition
Technology based

Measure crystal structure and symmetry

Technology based

Observe and measure physical and special properties

Easy for humans to see and recognize

Mineral Physical Properties

Color Hardness Cleavage Luster Density Crystalline Form

Mineral Composition
Silicate Group
Silicate group variety of compounds based on silicon and oxygen
Quarts glass manufacturing Feldspar ceramic manufacturing Mica
Muscovite (white mica) Biotite (black mica)

Clays used as drilling mud, in building materials, and as a soil modifier

Ferromagnesian silicates
Olivine peridot (semiprecious gem) Garnet abrasives; semiprecious gems Amphibole industrial products

Figure 2.6

Figures 2.7 a and b

Mineral Composition
Nonsilicates
Carbonates CO3 Sulfates SO4 Sulfides S
Host for many metallic ores (Pb, Cu, Zn, and others) Useful for building materials and manufacturing
Useful for building materials

Oxides any metal combined with oxygen

Iron and aluminum ores

Native elements minerals composed of single element

Carbon as diamond and graphite Copper, gold, silver, or platinum

Figures 2.2 c and d

Figures 2.3 a and b

Figure 2.4

Figures 2.5 a and b

Rocks formed from Minerals

A solid aggregate of one or more minerals, or mineral materials Consists of many mineral grains or crystals forming a solid mass Each rock contains a record of its own history Three broad categories
Igneous Sedimentary Metamorphic

Igneous Rocks
Magma, at high enough temperatures, rocks and minerals melt, and the natural hot, molten rock material is called magma Silicates are the most common minerals, and magmas are thus rich in silica. Magmas also contain some dissolved water and gases, and include some solid crystals suspended in the melt; iron content is variable and this variability is the basis for igneous rock classification An igneous rock is a rock formed by the solidification and crystallization of a cooling magma

Igneous Rocks
Rocks formed from hot, molten rock material Usually composed of silicate minerals and some dissolved gases and water Molten materials are very hot
Plutonic rocks form if magma cools inside earths crust (does not flow onto surface); coarse crystals will grow Volcanic rocks form if magma flows onto surface as lava; glass often forms

Figures 2.10 a and b

Igneous Rocks
Felsic;
low iron light toned Volcanic; extrusive; aphanitic Rhyolite Andesite

Intermediate Mafic;
high iron dark toned Basalt

Ultramafic

Eclogite

Plutonic; intrusive; phaneritic

Granite

Diorite

Gabbro

Peridotite

Weathering of Rocks
Chemical weathering Physical weathering Sediments Ions for cements

Sedimentary Rocks
Sediments are produced by weathering of preexisting rocks and minerals Sediments are loose, unconsolidated accumulations of mineral or rock particles Sediments are eroded, transported, and deposited in many sedimentary environments The sediments will be buried and experience lithification Lithification involves compacting the sediments with burial and cementation of the sediments forming a sedimentary rock

Sedimentary Rocks
Gravity plays a role in the formation of all sedimentary rocks. Layering is a very common feature of sedimentary rocks and is used to identify the origins of sedimentary rocks. Sedimentary rocks can yield information about the settings in which the sediments were deposited. Sedimentary rocks are formed at or near the earths surface and at temperatures close to ordinary surface temperatures.

Types of Sedimentary Rocks

Clastic sedimentary rocks
Formed by the lithification of mechanically weathered pieces of rocks and minerals
Grain sizes range from boulder, gravel, sand, silt, and mud

Grains are continually broken down in size and shape until deposited Once deposited these clastic particles a cemented

Chemical sedimentary rocks

Chemical process occur in water bodies such as lakes, seas, or oceans Minerals precipitate from the water and form thick deposits
Examples: Halite, Calcite, and Gypsum

Figures 2.11 Sedimentary Rocks

Figures 2.11 Sedimentary Rocks

Metamorphic Rocks
Changed form rock Rock formed from pre-existing rock or minerals Heat, pressure, and chemically active fluids cause changes in rock Heat increases as a rock is buried or is close to a magma chamber Pressure increases with burial or collision between moving continents Fluids become heated and circulate with burial or with location near a magma chamber

Metamorphic Rocks
The temperatures required to form metamorphic rocks are below magmatic temperatures Significant changes can occur in a rock at temperatures well below melting Temperature and pressure can cause the minerals in the rock to recrystallize Pressure may cause the rock to be deformed The sources of elevated temperatures of metamorphism: burial, magma, mountainbuilding, and plate tectonic movement The sources of elevated pressures of metamorphism: burial, mountain-building, and plate tectonic movement

Types of Metamorphism
Contact metamorphism localized metamorphism of rocks adjacent to a magma chamber Regional metamorphism large scale stressing and heating of a rock by deep burial or continental plates moving and colliding

Common Metamorphic Rocks

Any kind of preexisting rock (another rock) can be metamorphosed Foliation: when a rock is subjected to directed stress, its minerals form elongated/platy crystals and line up parallel to each other Metamorphic rocks without foliation do not show directed stress
Marble is metamorphosed limestone Quartzite is metamorphosed quartz-rich sandstone

Metamorphic rocks with foliation show directed stress or pressure

Slate low grade foliated metamorphic rock Schist and Gneiss (nice) high grade metamorphic rocks

Figures 2.12 Metamorphic rocks have undergone

mineralogical, chemical, and/or structural change

Figures 2.12 Metamorphic rocks have undergone mineralogical, chemical, and/or structural change

The Rock Cycle

Three rock groups on the basis of their mode of origin: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic Shows the interrelationships among the three rock types Rocks of any type can be transformed into rocks of another type or into another distinct rock of the same general type through the geologic processes Rocks are continually being changed by geological processes

The Rock Cycle

Earth as a system: the full cycle
Magma, a molten material formed inside Earth Crystallization, magma cools and solidifies Igneous rock, formed by fire underneath Weathering, transportation, and deposition Sediment
Lithification

Sedimentary rock
Metamorphism

Metamorphic rock
Melting

Magma

The Rock Cycle

Earth as a system: the rock cycle
Full cycle does not always take place due to "shortcuts" or interruptions
e.g., Sedimentary rock melts e.g., Igneous rock is metamorphosed e.g., Sedimentary rock is weathered e.g., Metamorphic rock weathers

Through time, geologic processes acting on older rocks change them into new and different ones so that, in a sense, all kinds of rocks are interrelated

Fig. 2.13 The Rock Cycle

The Rock Cycle

The Essence of the Rock Cycle
Igneous rocks, formed from magma Sedimentary rocks, formed from lowtemperature accumulations of particles or by precipitation from solution Metamorphic rocks, formed from preexisting rocks through the change of temperature and pressure Geologic processes working on old rocks change the old rocks into new and different ones, and thus all kinds of rocks are interrelated in a sense