What is liquefaction ?
Liquefaction is defined as the transformation of a granular material from a solid to a liquefied state as a consequence of increased pore-water pressure and reduced effective stress .
s = s - u
Consequence of Liquefaction :
Settlements Lateral spreads Lateral flows Loss of lateral support Loss of bearing support Flotation of bearing supports
The Showa Bridge's pile foundations moved due to lateral spreading Niigata (1964)
The Lower San Fernando Dam suffered failure by lateral spreading in 1971
Evaluation of CSR :
Seed and Idriss (1971) equation
CSR a max av 0.65 ' g vo vo ' vo rd
Laboratory studies to simulate field conditions for soil liquefaction : Idealized field loading conditions
Limitations Selection of representative samples Stress concentrations & maintenance of uniform stresses and strains Sampling disturbances etc.
CPT- based liquefaction assessment chart (modified from Robertson PK and wride CE in 1998)
Correlation between SPT and BPT blow counts in sand (modified from Harder and Seed in 1986)
Shear wave velocity based liquefaction assessment chart (Reproduced from Andrus and Stokoe in 2000)
General comments :
The SPT- and the CPT-based liquefaction assessment charts are the preferred means of evaluating liquefaction potential . They are the most reliable because they are supported by the largest databases on the occurrence of liquefaction . The SPT test provides soil samples for identification of soil type and many empirical design procedures are based on the SPT, N. The CPT provides the best picture of soil stratification and is the most reliable penetration test. Many design procedures are also based on CPT data . If the CPT is run with a seismic cone, the shear wave velocities can be measured at the same time. The shear moduli can be readily obtained from the velocity data and can be used as input into dynamic and static analyses. The BPT is the most uncertain of the tools for evaluating liquefaction potential but its use may be in gravels
References:
Kramer S. L. (1996). Geotechnical earthquake engineering, PrenticeHall, Englewood Cliffs, N. J., 653. Finn W.D.L. (2002). State of the art for the evaluation of seismic liquefaction potential ,Computers and Geotecnics 29 (2002), pp. 329341. H.B. Seed and I.M. Idriss (1971). Simplified procedure for evaluating soil liquefaction potential. J. Geotech. Engrg. Div., ASCE 97 9 (1971), pp. 12491273. Seed, H. B., and Idriss, I. M. (1982). Ground motions and soil liquefaction during earthquakes. Earthquake Engineering Research Institute Monograph, Oakland, Calif. T.L. Youd and I.M. Idriss , Liquefaction of soils: summary report from the 1996 NCEER and 1998 NCEER/NSF workshops on evaluation of liquefaction resistance of soils. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering 2001 (1996), p. 127 (4): 297-313. http://www.eng.cam.ac.uk/research/div-d/geotech/research.html
Thank you.