Refrigeration System

Chapter 1
Introduction to refrigeration
Dr Hamid Yusoff FKM MEC 351 Refrigeraton and air condiotioning system
Refrigeration Technology
Chapter 1
Introduction to refrigeration
Hamid Yusoff
Chapter1Introduction to refrigeration
Chapter 1 :Introduction to refrigeration

Definition and Scope of Refrigeration

Main Applications of Refrigeration History of Refrigeration in the world
References
Hamid Yusoff
Definition and Scope of Refrigeration
Literally, the word refrigerate is to make or keep cool or cold; to preserve (food, biologicals, etc) by keeping cold and freezing, as in Websters New World Dictionary. According to ASRE (American Society of Refrigeration Engineering), refrigeration is defined as the science of providing and maintaining temperatures below that of surroundings. Refrigeration may also be defined as the artificial withdrawal of heat, producing in a substance or within a space a temperature lower than that which would exist under the natural influence of surroundings.
Hamid Yusoff
1. Refrigeration and Heat Pump
The places, where surroundings are at temperatures lower than the required condition, have to be heated up. The similar machinery as refrigerator which performs the heating process is called a heat pump. The main difference between the refrigeration system and heat pump system can be physically conceived of from the fact that in the former there is pumping of heat out of the system into the surrounding as against pumping of a heat from surrounding into the system in the latter case. Thus a refrigeration system can be used as a heat pump, just by reversing the direction of operation as shown in Fig.1-2.
Hamid Yusoff
Hamid Yusoff
2. Refrigeration and Air Conditioning
The definition of comfort air conditioning is the process of treating air to control simultaneously its temperature, humidity, cleanliness, and distribution to meet the comfort requirements of the occupants of the conditioned space Refrigeration can offer cooling, dehumidifying, and also heating (by heat pump) for air conditioning. Refrigeration has also many other applications other than air conditioning, as shown in Fig.1-3.
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3. Refrigeration and Cryogenics
On principle, refrigeration is concerned with all the temperature regions below the surroundings, down to absolute zero degree 0 K. Nevertheless there is some agreement that cryogenics is concerned with temperatures below about 120 K, approximately, which is a little above the normal boiling point of liquefied natural gas. The concept was adopted at the 13 rd Congress of the International Institute of Refrigeration.
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Main Applications of Refrigeration

1. Comfort air conditioning
Comfort air conditioning applies not only in domestic, office, and commercial building, but also in automobile, train, ship, and airplane. Comfort air conditioning is one of the largest applications of refrigeration. There are mainly three kinds of air conditioners (AC) for domestic, office, and commercial building: window air conditioner, split system air conditioner and central air conditioning system. The last one is also called Chilled-water and Unit .
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2. Industrial air conditioning
The term industrial air conditioning will refer here to controlling air conditions to meet the requirements of the industrial processes. Such as the constant temperature and constant humidity rooms for precision machinery, printing and photographic process, textile plants, and also low temperature, for example -40, environmental laboratories. The air temperature in computer rooms need to be maintained the range of 20 to 23, and the relative humidity between 30-45 % .
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3. Food and pharmaceutical cold preservation and Cold Chain

(1)Cold Storage Many pharmaceuticals are heat sensitive, hence it is necessary to store them in cold state. Most meats, fish, fruit, and vegetables are perishable, and refrigeration is an appealing preservation process of foods because it is one of the few ways that preserve the original properties of foodstuffs. The purpose of food refrigeration is to extend their storage life and to maintain their freshness.
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(2)Rapid freezing Rapid freezing is a good approach for food cooling, by which higher quality can be reached. Rapid freezing prevents undesirable large ice crystals from forming throughout the food product. Slow freezing creates large ice crystals. During thawing, they damage the cells and dissolve emulsions. This causes meat to drip (lose) juiciness. Emulsions such as mayonnaise or cream will separate and appear curdled.
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3Several measures of rapid freezing

1) Air freezing 2) Plate Freezing 3) Liquid immersion or spraying Freezing 4) Cryogenic Freezing Cold Chain is a temperature-controlled supply chain for perishable goods such as foods and pharmaceuticals. In the cold chain, storage and distribution activities must maintain a given temperature range to prevent product spoilage. Specific temperature tolerances vary, depending on the actual items being shipped.
4Cold chain
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4. Industry and construction processes

(1)Food processing For example in the brewing industry, the refrigeration controls the fermentation reaction and preserves the intermediate and final products. A key process in the production of alcohol is fermentation, an exothermic reaction. For producing a large-type beer, fermentation should proceed at temperature between 8 and 12 , which is maintained by refrigeration .
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(2)Chemical and Process industries Some important functions served by refrigeration in chemical and process industries are removal of reaction heat, condensation of gases, or separation of gases, solidification of liquid, and maintenance of a low temperature of stored liquid so that the pressure will not be excessive.
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(3)Construction Process
Refrigeration is widely applied in construction processes, such as in large dam and underground. There are very large volume concretes in such construction. During the concrete-pouring and curing portion of construction, the temperature control is necessary to prevent the cracking. Several cooling measures are used, like piping refrigerated water through tubes into the wet concrete. This is to remove the heat generated by the chemical reactions that solidify the concrete.
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5. Air liquefaction and separation
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Air consists primarily of 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen, and also some rare gases, such as Ar, Ne, He. Liquid air is used commercially for freezing other substances and especially as an intermediate step in the production of nitrogen, oxygen, and argon and the other inert gases. The air liquefaction and air separation approach is based on the application of refrigeration. Firstly, air is pressurized in a compressor, and after going through heat-exchangers it is expanded in the expansion machine or on a throttle valve. As a result the temperature falls down and the air turns into a liquid.
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6. Cryobiology and cryomedicine

1Cryobiology It is a new area of science. It can be regarded as a branch of biology dealing with the properties of biological cells at low temperatures, and also as that of refrigeration dealing with the use of refrigeration technology in the biology and medicine. Cryobiology has mainly two applications: Cryosurgery and Cryopreservation. 2Cryosurgery (also called cryotherapy) It is the use of extreme cold to destroy abnormal tissue.
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3Cryopreservation
4 Freeze-drying
Freeze-drying, or lyophilization, is another method of preservation by refrigeration. Firstly the materials are cooled to low temperatures; the water in the substance is almost completely frozen. Then the water is sublimated from the solid state directly into the vapor phase during drying process. The freeze dried stuff can be stored at normal temperature in vacuum state.
In the other hand, cryobiology has found its unique application in the long-term storage of living cells and tissues at low temperatures, which is called cryopreservation.
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7. Rocket propellant and cryoelectronics

(1)Rocket propellant Propellant is the chemical mixture burned to produce thrust in rockets and consists of a fuel and an oxidizer. A fuel is a substance which burns when combined with oxygen producing gas for propulsion. An oxidizer is an agent that releases oxygen for combination with a fuel. The ratio of oxidizer to fuel is called the mixture ratio. Propellants are classified according to their state liquid, solid, or hybrid.
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(2)Cryoelectronics
Low temperature electronics is focusing on the research and development of electrical components, circuits, and systems suitable for applications in the aerospace environment and in deep space exploration missions. Research is being conducted on devices and systems for reliable use down to cryogenic temperatures.
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8. Superconductivity and low temperature physics

(1)Superconductivity
Superconductivity is the vanishing of all electrical resistance in certain substances. Superfluidity occurs in liquid helium and leads to the tendency of liquid helium to flow over the sides of any container it is placed in without being stopped by friction or gravity.
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(2) Superfluidity
When liquid helium is cooled to a critical temperature of 2.17 K (called its lambda point ), a remarkable discontinuity in heat capacity occurs, the liquid density drops, and a fraction of the liquid becomes zero viscosity "superfluid". The superfluid component has zero viscosity, zero entropy, and infinite thermal conductivity. (It is thus impossible to set up a temperature gradient in a superfluid, much as it is impossible to set up a voltage difference in a superconductor) Superfluidity arises from the fraction of helium atoms which has condensed to the lowest possible energy.
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9. Summary
The main applications of refrigeration and their temperature regions are summarized in Fig. 1-18.
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History of Refrigeration in the world
Refrigeration Chronology
BC 1000 The Chinese cut and stored ice from the winter for use in the summer Egyptians and Indians made ice on cold nights by setting water out in earthenware pots AD 1787: Martinus van Marum liquefied ammonia, by compression 1793: Lowitz obtained -50 by a mixture of snow and calcium chloride
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1803: T. Moore of Maryland received US patent for refrigerator. First patent issued in US on refrigeration 1823: J. Leslie constructed a vacuum/absorption freezing apparatus in England 1850: A. Twining proposed carbon dioxide as a refrigerant in British Patent 13167 of 1850. 1855: First commercial ice making plant using vapor compression refrigeration constructed in Cleveland, Ohio by Alexander Twining. 1876-77: F. Windhausen built the first industrial water vapor refrigerating machines 1886: F. Windhausen constructed a carbon dioxide operational refrigerating compressor 1892: First air conditioned house was constructed in U.S. San Lorenzo, CA by M. Dillenber 1894: H. Lorenz introduced the polytropic cycle Hamid Yusoff
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1900: W. Johnson invented the "humidistat" 1904: American Society of Refrigerating Engineers was founded 1905: Modern type Automatic Expansion Valve was patented by Albert Marshall (US Patent 785265) 1907: W. Carrier patented dew point control system for precisely controlling humidity in a room. 1908: First International Congress of Refrigeration was hold in Paris 1927 First refrigerator to see widespread use was the General Electric "Monitor-Top" refrigerator. 1931: Dupont produced commercial quantities of R-12, trademarked as Freon 1935: Freeze-drying equipment was developed by E.W. Flosdorff and S. Mudd (U.S.) 1936: Albert Henne synthesized refrigerant R-134a Hamid Yusoff
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1940: Absorption refrigerating machine using lithium bromide: water was studies by Servel and Carrier 1949: Thermoelectric (Peltier effect ) domestic refrigerator was developed 1950: Commercial development of heat pumps began in U.S. There were 2000 unites made in 1954, 76,000 in 1963, 300,000 in1976. 1953: Two associations, the Refrigeration Equipment Manufacturers Association (REMA) and the Air-Conditioning and Refrigerating Machinery Association (ACRMA), united to become the Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute (ARI) 1958: Screw compressors used industrially for refrigeration. 1958: In December, members of ASRE and ASHAE voted to merge into the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE).
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1959: W.E. Gifford and his graduated student H.O. McMahon invented a new cycle for miniature gas refrigerators called G-M refrigerator 1964: The International Society of Cryobiology (Society for Cryobiology) was founded 1964: W.E. Gifford and his graduated student R.C. Longsworth invented the pulse tube refrigerator 1968-72: Refrigerant R-22 becomes standard refrigerant for unitary air conditioners and heat pumps 1972: ARI and ASHRAE combine forces for the first cosponsored International Air-Conditioning, Heating, & Refrigeration Exposition 1974: F. S. Rowland and M. J. Molina published the findings: they suspected that the chlorine released by halogenated hydrocarbons was adversely affecting the ozone layer. They won the Nobel Chemistry Prize in 1995. 1987: The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer was negotiated and signed on September 16, 1987 by 24 countries and by the European Economic Community. The Protocol called for the Parties to phase down the use of CFCs, halons and other man-made ODCs
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1990: London Amendment of Montreal Protocol:Parties to Montreal Protocol agreed in London to amendments that eliminate CFC use and production by the year 2000. 1992: Copenhagen Amendment: Montreal Protocol revised to advance CFC phaseout to end of 1995, with HCFCs to be phased out in steps by 2030. 1997: Climate Summit hold in Kyoto, Japan, in December 1997; The Kyoto protocol agreed to greenhouse gas cuts 2004: July 15-19, the 44th Annual Meeting of the Society for Cryobiology (CRYO2004) held in Beijing, China. 2007: December 3-14, the United Nations climate Change Conference held in Bali, Indonesia culminated in the adoption of the Bali roadmap.
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Chapter 1

Chapter 1 :Introduction to refrigeration

Definition and Scope of Refrigeration

Definition and Scope of Refrigeration

1. Refrigeration and Heat Pump

2. Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

3. Refrigeration and Cryogenics

Main Applications of Refrigeration

2. Industrial air conditioning

3. Food and pharmaceutical cold preservation and Cold Chain

3Several measures of rapid freezing

4. Industry and construction processes

5. Air liquefaction and separation

6. Cryobiology and cryomedicine

7. Rocket propellant and cryoelectronics

8. Superconductivity and low temperature physics

History of Refrigeration in the world

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