Chapter 25
Endrocrinology
- the study of hormones and endocrine glands
Nervous System
Controls homeostsis rapidly Anatomically continuous: nerve impluse conducted along axons from one neuron to the next Neurotransmitters (NTs) Brief effect (muscle contraction)
Endocrine System
Controls growth and metabolism slowly Scattered: messenger molecules released into the EC space will immediately enter adjacent capillaries Hormones (to excite) Longer lasting effect with feedback loops
Together these systems interact to coordinate and integrate activity of our cells
Endocrine Organs
Series of ductless glands
- small and scattered throughout the body - some may be both endocrine and exocrine
Endocrine cells also occur in the heart, alimentary canal, kidney, skin, placenta, and elsewhere
Fig 25.1
Hormones travel through the bloodstream but affect only specific tissues called target tissues Hormones secreted by cells regulate the metabolic function of other cells in the body
- effects result from pre-programmed responses of target cells
Endocrine Functions
Regulation of:
- Internal environment (adjust fluid/volume ratio): aldosterone - Metabolism and energy balance: thyroid hormones - Cardiac and smooth muscle contraction: epinephrine and norepinephrine - Immune system: cytokines
Classes of Hormones
The body produces many different kinds of hormones with distinct chemical structures Two broad molecular categories:
1. Amino acid-based hormones - modified amino acids (amines), peptides (short chains of amino acids), and proteins (long chains of amino acids) 2. Steroid hormones - lipid molecules derived from cholesterol
Cells have receptors on their surface that bind only specific types of hormones
- receptor binding initiates a response/reaction - hormones are just molecular triggers and do not carry any coded information
Neural
- a few glands secrete their hormones in response to stimuli by the nervous system to induce physiological changes - sympathetic nerve fibers stimulate cells in the adrenal medulla - induces release of epinephrine and norepinephrine
Note: the hypothalamus is called the master gland - controls many functions of the endocrine system, through
hormonal and other mechanisms
Fig 25.2
Figure 25.3ac
The Adenohypophysis
Hormone release is controlled by the hypothalamus
- stimulated and inhibited by releasing and inhibiting hormones
Somatotropic cells
- secrete growth hormone (GH)
Mammotropic cells
- secrete prolactin (PRL)
Corticotropic cells
- secrete adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)
Gonadotropic cells
- secrete follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH)
5 cell types group into 3 categories when stained: acidophils, basophils, chromophobes
Fig 25.4
The Neurohypophysis
Stores and releases hormones produced by the hypothalamus
- structurally part of the brain - composed of nervous tissue (unmyelinated axons and neuroglial cells)
Hormones made in the neuron cell bodies, transported along the axons, and stored in dilated axon terminals (Herring bodies) secrete 2 hormones
- antidiuretic hormone (ADH) or vasopressin (vessel constrictor): targets the kidney to resorb more water from the urine and return it to the blood - secretes oxytocin induces contractions of smooth muscle of reproductive organs
The Neurohypophysis
When the neurons fire, they release stored hormones into a capillary bed in the pars nervosa for distribution
Fig 25.5
Table 25.1
Fig 25.6
T4 and T3, consists of 2 amino acids and iodine Main function is to increase metabolic rate
Fig 25.6
Follicle cells continuously synthesize thyroglobulin and secrete it into the follicle lumen for iodination and storage TSH (pituitary gland) signals the follicle cells to release TH
Posterior view of the pharynx a and trachea showing the location of the parathyroid glands on the posterior aspect of the thyroid
Fig 25.7
Fig 25.7
The function of oxyphil (acid-loving) cells is unknown PTH is essential to life - low Ca2+ levels lead to lethal neuromuscular disorders What is the antagonist of PTH?
Cortex is composed of 3 layers or zones: - Zona glomerulosa (ball of yarn): cell clusters - Zona fasciculata: cells arranged in bundles - Zona reticularis (network): cells arranged in a branching network
Figure 25.8a, b
Adrenal Corticosteroids
2 main classes: mineralocorticoid & glucocorticoid Main mineralocorticoid is aldosterone - secreted by the zona glomerulosa - in response to a decline in blood volume or BP - prompts kidney to resorb more sodium into the blood; water passively follows, increasing blood volume
Adrenal Corticosteroids
Glucocorticoids: cortisol is the main type
- secreted by zona fasciculata and zona reticularis - helps the body deal with stressful situations by keeping glucose levels high to support the brain - body cells switch to fats and amino acids as energy sources - high amounts depress the inflammatory response
Adrenal Corticosteroids
Hormonal pathway of stress:
- hypothalamus sends corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) to the adenohypophysis, which secretes ACTH - ATCH travels to the adrenal cortex to signal glucocorticoid secretions - the sympathetic NS can also stimulate glucocorticoid secretions
Adrenal Corticosteroids
Zona reticularis secretes an androgen hormone, dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA)
- DHEA is converted to testosterone and estrogens in peripheral tissues - proposed beneficial effects include counteracting stress, boosting immunity, and mood
Fig 25.9
The Pancreas
Located in the posterior abdominal wall
The Pancreas
Main endocrine cell types: - Alpha cells ( cells): secrete glucagon signals liver to release glucose from glycogen; raises blood sugar - Beta cells ( cells): secrete insulin signals most body cells to take up glucose from the blood; promotes glucose storage as glycogen in liver; lowers blood sugar
A Pancreatic Islet
Figure 25.10
The Thymus
Located in the lower neck and anterior thorax Important immune organ Site at which T-lymphocytes arise from lymphocyteprecursor cells
- transformation stimulated by thymic hormones, secreted by the thymus epithelial reticular cells
The Gonads
Main sources of sex hormone testes and ovaries Male testes
- interstitial cells secrete androgens (primarily testosterone) - promotes the formation of sperm - maintains secondary sex characteristics
The Gonads
Female ovaries
- androgens secreted by the theca folliculi directly converted into estrogens by the follicular granulosa cells & progesterone - estrogens and progesterone secreted by the corpus luteum - estrogens maintain reproductive organs and secondary sex characteristics - progesterone signals uterus to prepare for pregnancy
Pituitary Disorders
Gigantism - hypersecretion of GH in children Acromegaly - hypersecretion in adults causes Pituitary dwarfism - hyposecretion of GH
Diabetes Mellitus
Type 2 diabetes - Adult onset - Usually occurs after age 40 - Cells have lowered sensitivity to insulin - Controlled by dietary changes and regular exercise
Myxedema
- adult hypothyroidism - antibodies attack and destroy thyroid tissue - common symptoms include low metabolic rate and weight gain
Cretinism
- hypothyroidism in children - short, disproportionate body, thick tongue and mental retardation
Thyroid Disorders
Figure 25.11
Addisons disease
- hyposecretory disorder of the adrenal cortex - deficiencies of both mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids
Thyroid Disorders
Figure 25.12
Adenohypophysis
- increase in CT and lipofuscin - decrease in vascularization and number of hormonesecreting cells
Adrenal cortex
- normal rates of glucocorticoid secretion continue
Adrenal medulla
- no age-related changes in catecholamines
Thyroid hormones
- decrease slightly with age
Parathyroid glands
- little change with aging
Pineal gland
- originates from ependymal cells
Embryonic Development
Figure 25.13
Figure 25.bd