Major Functions of Breathing and Gas Exchange in the Lungs

Zaenal M.
SOFRO_2007
The major purpose of breathing is to supply O2 and to remove CO2 from cells Four major functions to achieve this goal: 1. Pulmonary ventilation: movement of air into and out of lungs 2. Diffusion of O2 and CO2 between the alveoli and the blood 3. Transport of O2 and CO2 in the blood to and from cells 4. Control of ventilation Once the O2 is transferred to the cells it is utilized to metabolize various food molecules involving a series of enzymatic reactions. During this process there is release of energy which is stored in the form of ATPThis process is called cellular respiration.
Zaenal M. SOFRO_2007
From the time of birth until our death we breath continuously at a rate of 12-15 breaths/min. However, breathing can change in response to alterations in blood chemistry. -Breathing and gas exchange can increase 20-fold to meet the bodys energy demands during periods of need such as exercise.
In unicellular organisms movement of O2 and CO2 occur through simple diffusion. In multicellular organisms, because of long diffusion distances between cells and the environment. Specialized organs for gas exchange developed. In air breathing animals these are the Lungs.
I. BASIC ANATOMY:. The lungs are composed of 2 treelike structures: 1. Vascular tree: consists of arteries and veins connected by capillaries 2. Airway tree: consists of hollow branching tubes that conduct air from the environment to site of gas exchange to the blood. Conducting Zone: (in descending order): Nose (conchae)-Pharynx-LarynxTrachea-Bronchi-Bronchioles: A. Functions to: 1. Warm and humidify the air 2. Distribute air to the lungs 3. Defense system (remove dust and bacteria)
B. Supplied by separate circulatory system bronchial circulation-part of the systemic circulation. C. Trachea and bronchi lined with ciliated, mucous coated epithelium that aid in clearing passageway. Cilia beat toward the pharynx. -Epithelium rests on smooth muscle (can constrict or dilate independent of the lung) and is supported by cartilage. D. Bronchioles: Lack cartilage, simple cuboidal epithelium, volume depends on lung volume. -have sensory cells sensitive to stretch and irritants **NO GAS EXCHANGE TAKES PLACE IN THE CONDUCTING ZONE-DEAD SPACE
Respiratory Zone: Alveolar duct and alveolar sacs. A. SITE OF GAS EXCHANGE B. Has its own circulation: the pulmonary circulation -in order to match ventilation, follows and branches along with the pulmonary tree. -pulmonary artery from right ventricle supplies nutrients to the alveolar walls -capillary surface area nearly as great as the alveolar surface area -can increase from 70 ml (normal) to 200 ml (exercise) recruitment -capillaries also cover several alveoli, increase time of exposure of red blood cells to alveolar gas
C. Terminal Respiratory Unit: functional exchange unit of lungs Greatly increases surface area: 60,000 terminal respiratory units, each with 5000 alveoli and 250 alveolar ducts.
II. VENTILATION: Main purpose is to maintain an optimal concentration of O2 and CO2 in the alveolar gas. How do we move air into and out of the lungs. 1. The lungs are housed in an airtight cavity, the thoracic cavity, that is separated from the abdomen by a large dome-shaped muscle, the diaphragm. Lungs conform to the thoracic cavity by contact of fluid lined pleura: visceral pleura: covers the lungs parietal pleura: lines the thoracic cavity 2. The anterior portion of the thoracic cavity is bounded by the ribs. The external and internal intercostal muscles lie between the ribs. The ribs are hinged on one side to the vertebral column and on the other to the sternum.
A. Inspiration: The primary inspiratory muscle is the diaphragm. The diaphragm is a skeletal muscle and is innervated by the phrenic nerve. The diaphragm contracts during every inspiration. -contraction of the diaphragm increases the vertical diameter of the thoracic cavity. Voluntary muscles The external intercostals raise the rib cage and increase the anterior-posterior diameter of the thoracic cavity. Accessory muscles Active during forced breathing. These include the scalene muscles of the neck. The sternocleidomastoids insert on the top of the sternum. These muscles elevate the upper rib cage during heavy breathing such as during exercise.
B. Expiration: During normal tidal breathing at the end of inspiration the diaphragm relaxes, and expiration is a passive process. The natural recoil tendency of the lungs and chest wall cause deflation of the lungs. -elastic fibers -surface tension
During forced expiration other expiratory muscles become active -internal intercostals oppose the external intercostals and pull the rib cage down. -abdominal muscles force the contents of the abdominal cavity up against the diaphragm. Especially important in coughing, vomiting, etc.
C. Pressures: Airflow is due to changes in pressure in the thoracic cavity that are transmitted to the alveoli. Three important pressures associated with breathing and airflow: 1. Pleural pressure (PPL): pressure in the pleural fluid between the lung and chest wall. 2. Alveolar pressure (PA): pressure inside the alveoli. 3. Transmural pressure (PTM): the pressure difference across the airway or across the lung wall. -Transpulmonary pressure: alveolar pressure-pleural pressure. Keeps the lungs from collapsing. Is always positive during normal breathing. -Transairway pressure: airway pressure-pleural pressure. Transairway pressure is important in keeping the airways open during expiration.
Pressures (contd) Inspiration: PPL is negative during quiet breathing and becomes more negative during inspiration. This causes PA to drop with respect to atmospheric pressure (very little pressure needed, -1 mmHg) Expiration: PPL becomes less negative and PA becomes slightly positive (+1 mmHg) During heavy breathing PA can go from -80 to 100 mmHg
Pressures (contd) Pneumothorax: hole in the thoracic cavity, PPL becomes 0, can no longer generate (-) pressures in the alveoli.
D. Compliance: Compliance: the ease with which the lungs can be distended. -how well the lung inflates and deflates with a change in transpulmonary pressure is a function of the elastic properties of the lung. Lung elastance: inverse of compliance, a measure of the ability of the lungs to resist stretch.
Compliance (contd) Pressure-volume relations: elastic properties of the lungs can be determined by measuring changes in lung volume that occur with changes in pressure. Compliance=V/P: volume increase in lungs for each unit increase in pressure normal ~0.13L/cm (lungs alone are more compliant than this, but part of energy must go to expand the thoracic cage). Compliance can be measured in human lungs by measuring the pleural pressure and the volume of the lungs with a spirometer.
Compliance depends on a number of things: -elastic properties of lungs -surface forces inside the alveoli
Inflation curve is different than deflation curve -The inflation curve requires a higher transpulmonary pressure than the deflation curve at any given volume. -This is possible if surface tension is different during inflation and deflation. Variable surface tension is responsible for hysteresis.
Resistance:
Some of the work of breathing goes to overcoming airflow resistance -Resistance is a meaningful term only during flow
Resistance
PressureDifference (cm H 2 O) Flow (liters/sec)
1. Resistance is inversely proportional to the 4th power of the radius, i.e. increase diameter decreases the resistance. The main factor that affects resistance is the radius. 2. Most of the airway resistance is in the upper airways (large airways) because the flow velocity is greater. -large number of parallel pathways in the small airways decreases the flow velocity Resistances in parallel are added as reciprocals:
1 1 1 .... R tot R1 R2
Forced Vital Capacity The resistance to airflow can not be measured directly, but must be calculated from the pressure gradient and airflow during a breath. One way of indirectly assessing resistance is to look at the results of a forced expiration into a spirometer: Forced Vital Capacity (FVC): Large breath from FRC to TLC and breath out as hard and fast as possible.
III. PULMONARY VOLUMES AND CAPACITIES Can be measured with a spirometer.(except RV)
A. Four different volumes 1. Tidal volume (TV): volume of air inspired and expired with a normal breath (.500 ml). 2. Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV): extra volume of air that can be inspired after a normal tidal inspiration (.3000 ml). 3. Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV): extra volume of air that can be expired after a normal tidal expiration (.1100 ml). 4. Residual Volume (RV): volume of air remaining after a maximal expiratory effort (.1200 ml). *Can not be removed from lungs.
III. PULMONARY VOLUMES AND CAPACITIES (contd) B. Four different capacities relating the above volumes 1. Inspiratory Capacity (IC): TV + IRV 2. Functional Residual Capacity (FRC): ERV + RV amount of air remaining in the lungs at the end of a normal tidal expiration (lungs at rest). At FRC the chest wall and lungs are recoiling in equal and opposite directions. 3. Vital Capacity (VC): IRV + TV + ERV the maximal amount of usable lung capacity. 4. Total Lung Capacity (TLC): All of the above, maximal volume to which the lungs can be expanded. * VC is one of most important of all clinical respiratory measurements for assessing the progress of disease. Decrease compliance=decrease VC. -restrictive diseases (limited expansion) -large residual volume (COPD)
Alveolar Ventilation (contd) O2 and CO2 in air and alveolar gas are different and air is constantly moving in and out by ventilation. This should lead to fluctuations in alveolar gas causing fluctuations in blood O2 and CO2 levels (heart rate much faster than respiratory rate). 1. The large FRC (.2.4 L) acts as a buffer to maintain the O2 and CO2 in alveolar gas constant. 2. Small volume of alveolar ventilation/breath (VT-VD). The first part of gas is gas remaining in the dead space after last expiration.
Main Gases of the Atmosphere

Gas Symbol Approximate % 78.6 20.9 0.04 0.46
Nitrogen Oxygen Carbon Dioxide Water Vapor
N2 O2 CO2 H2O
Definition of Pulmonary Ventilation

Pulmonary ventilation is the exchange of air between the atmosphere and the lungs. This process is commonly called breathing and depends on chest and diaphragm movements, as well as, clear airways. Inhalation (inspiration) lowers pressure inside the lungs which draws in air. Exhalation does the opposite.
Definition of External Respiration

External respiration is gas exchange between the lung alveoli and the blood of the pulmonary circulation. This process depends on gas partial pressure differences, the integrity of lung membranes and blood flow in and out of the lungs.
Definition of Internal Respiration

Internal respiration is the exchange of gas between the blood and the cells of the body. This process generally depends on the same factors as external respiration.
Unit 1 - Objective 3
Movement of Gases in the Body

Movement of gases between the alveoli, blood and cells depends on the partial pressure difference of a gas across these regions. According to the Law of Diffusion, gases always move from a region of high partial pressure to a region of low partial pressure. If your lungs have a higher gas pressure than your blood, then the gas will move into your blood and visa versa.
Movement of Gases in the Body

Examine the following slide in order to observe the gas partial pressure differences that exist in different regions of the body. Predict the direction of oxygen and carbon dioxide movement from one region to another using the gas pressures.
Movement of Gases in Body
Carbon Dioxide Transport

Method Dissolved in Plasma Chemically Bound to Hemoglobin in RBCs As Bicarbonate Ion in Plasma Percentage 7 - 10 %
20 - 30 %
60 -70 %
Oxygen Transport
Method Dissolved in Plasma Percentage 1.5 %
Combined with Hemoglobin
98.5 %
Bicarbonate Ion Formation

The bicarbonate ion also forms abundantly in the RBC when carbonic acid breaks down to release a hydrogen ion and bicarbonate. The process is summarized as follows:
H2 CO3
H+ + HCO3
Oxyhemoglobin Formation
Oxyhemoglobin forms when an oxygen molecule reversibly attaches to the heme portion of hemoglobin. The heme unit contains iron ( +2 ) which provides the attractive force. The process is summarized as follows:
O2 + Hb HbO2
Carbaminohemoglobin Formation
Carbaminohemoglobin forms when a carbon dioxide molecule reversibly attaches to an amino portion of hemoglobin. The process is summarized as follows:
CO2 + Hb HbCO2
Carbonic Acid Formation

Carbonic acid forms abundantly in the RBC when the enzyme carbonic anhydrase stimulates water to combine quickly with carbon dioxide. The process is summarized as follows:
CO2 + H2 0 H2 CO3
Bicarbonate Ion Formation

The bicarbonate ion also forms abundantly in the RBC when carbonic acid breaks down to release a hydrogen ion and bicarbonate. The process is summarized as follows:
H2 CO3 H+ + HCO3
Explain what takes place during the chloride shift and be able to diagram the chloride shift for tissue capillaries and pulmonary capillaries.
Chloride Shift in Tissue Capillaries

When RBCs move through tissue capillaries, they take in carbon dioxide and release bicarbonate. As bicarbonate is released, chloride (-1) shifts into the RBC in order to replace the negative bicarbonate (-1). This preserves charge balance in the RBC. To see this, look at the next slide.
Chloride Shift in Tissue Capillaries

Tissue Capillary
Chloride Shift in Pulmonary Capillaries

Pulmonary Capillary
Given an oxygen dissociation curve, determine the percent of hemoglobin saturation with oxygen for a given PO2 and PCO2. Discuss the influence of the Bohr effect on hemoglobin saturation.
The Oxygen Dissociation Curve

Examine the following oxygen dissociation curve and give the percent saturation at the following partial pressures of oxygen:
PO2 100 mm Hg 40 mm Hg 26 mm Hg
Percent Saturation ? ? ?

The answers for the previous activity are as follows: PO2 Percent Saturation 100 mm Hg 98 40 mm Hg 75 26 mm Hg 50
Zaenal M. SOFRO_2007 Unit 1 - Objective
The Bohr Effect

When the carbon dioxide content of the blood increases, the oxygen dissociation curve shifts to the right. This right shift decreases the ability of hemoglobin to hold oxygen. Consequently, additional oxygen is unloaded and made available to the body. See the following graph for this effect.
Bohr Effect
Bohr Shift Curve
The Bohr Effect

Did you notice that when PCO2 increased from 40 to 80 mm Hg, oxygen saturation decreased from 75 % to about 65 %. This made an extra 10% oxygen available to the tissues. This would come in handy during increased activity. The Bohr shift is a very positive adaptation!
Cite or recognize four reasons why oxyhemoglobin is induced to give off oxygen in tissue capillaries
Factors That Induce Oxygen Unloading From Hemoglobin
In addition to carbon dioxide that causes a right shift in the oxygen dissociation and more oxygen unloading, there are additional factors that cause a similar effect: 1. Increased body temperature 2. Increased H+ from acids 3. Increased 2,3-biphosphoglygerate (BPG)
Give the location and function of the respiratory centers and list five factors that influence the centers.
Location of Respiratory Centers

The pons contains the pneumotaxic respiratory center and the apneustic respiratory center. Both of these centers are considered secondary respiratory centers. This means they do not set the basic respiratory rhythm. Instead, they modify the basic respiratory rate. The medulla contains the medullary respiratory center that operates as the primary breathing center.
Location of Respiratory Centers

View the following diagram for the location of the respiratory centers
Respiratory Centers
Medullary Respiratory Center
Function of Respiratory Centers

The pneumotaxic respiratory center inhibits inhibits inspiratory time and increases breaths per minute. The apneustic respiratory center has not been clearly defined, but, is postulated to prolong inspiratory time and reduces breaths per minute. The medullary respiratory center stimulates basic inspiration for about 3 seconds and then basic expiration for about 2 seconds (5sec/breath= 12breaths/min).
Factors That Influence Respiration

View the following slide for factors that influence respiration
Factors Influencing Respiration
Motivation is what gets you started. Habit is what keeps you going.
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Major Functions of Breathing and Gas Exchange in the Lungs

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Major Functions of Breathing and Gas Exchange in the Lungs

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Zaenal M.

PressureDifference (cm H 2 O) Flow (liters/sec)

Main Gases of the Atmosphere

Nitrogen Oxygen Carbon Dioxide Water Vapor

Definition of Pulmonary Ventilation

Definition of External Respiration

Definition of Internal Respiration

Movement of Gases in the Body

Movement of Gases in the Body

Movement of Gases in Body

Carbon Dioxide Transport

Combined with Hemoglobin

Bicarbonate Ion Formation

Carbonic Acid Formation

Bicarbonate Ion Formation

Chloride Shift in Tissue Capillaries

Chloride Shift in Tissue Capillaries

Chloride Shift in Pulmonary Capillaries

The Oxygen Dissociation Curve

The Oxygen Dissociation Curve

The Oxygen Dissociation Curve

Zaenal M. SOFRO_2007 Unit 1 - Objective

The Bohr Effect

Bohr Shift Curve

The Bohr Effect

Factors That Induce Oxygen Unloading From Hemoglobin

Location of Respiratory Centers

Location of Respiratory Centers

Medullary Respiratory Center

Function of Respiratory Centers

Factors That Influence Respiration

Factors Influencing Respiration

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