Animal Responses

By Daniella Di-Fonzo

Specification

(a) discuss why animals need to respond to their environment; (b) outline the organisation of the nervous system in terms of central and peripheral systems in humans; (c) outline the organisation and roles of the autonomic nervous system; (d) describe, with the aid of diagrams, the gross structure of the human brain, and outline the functions of the cerebrum, cerebellum, medulla oblongata and hypothalamus; (e) describe the role of the brain and nervous system in the co-ordination of muscular movement; (f) describe how co-ordinated movement requires the action of skeletal muscles about joints, with reference to the of the elbow joint; (g) explain, with the aid of diagrams and photographs, the sliding filament model of muscular contraction;

(h) outline the role of ATP in muscular contraction, and how the supply of ATP is maintained in muscles; (i) compare and contrast the action of synapses and neuromuscular junctions; (j) outline the structural and functional differences between voluntary, involuntary and cardiac muscle; (k) state that responses to environmental stimuli in mammals are co-ordinated by nervous and endocrine systems; (l) explain how, in mammals, the fight or flight response to environmental stimuli is coordinated by the nervous and endocrine systems.

animals need to respond to their environment

Animals increase their survival chances by responding to the changes in their external environment They also respond to changes in their internal environment to ensure optimum conditions for metabolic processes Any change in either environment is a stimulus and usually elicits a response

the nervous system

The central nervous system; made up of the brain and spinal cord- most neurones here are intermediate neurones and have short dendrites
The peripheral nervous system; made up of neurones that connect the CNS t the rest of the body- cell bodies of sensory neurones are found just outside the spinal cord

Receptors detect stimuli and effectors bring about a response. Effectors include The autonomic nervous The somatic nervous system muscles cells and cells in system controls unconscious controls conscious activities. activities. e.g., digestion E.g., running glands Receptors communicate with effectors via the nervous or hormonal systems, and The parasympathetic nervous sometimes both The sympathetic nervous system calms he body down;
system gets the body ready for fight or flight sympathetic neurones release noradrenaline its the rest and digest system parasympathetic neurones release the neurotransmitter acetylcholine

the autonomic nervous system

Different from somatic ns: most the neurones in ANS are non-myelinated SNS connections to effectors consist of one neurone as opposed to two in ANS Autonomic motor neurones can be sympathetic or parasympathetic The sympathetic and parasympathetic systems are antagonistic
Parasympathetic Most active in times of sleep and relaxation The neurones of the pathway are linked at a ganglion within the target tissue. Preganglionic neurones vary in length Post-ganglionic neurones secrete acetylcholine between the neurone and effector Effects include: decreased heart rate, pupil constriction, decreased ventilation rate sympathetic Most active in times of stress The neurones are linked at a ganglion just outside the spinal cord so pre-ganglionic neurones are very short Post-ganglionic neurone secrete noradrenaline at the synapse between the neurone and effector Effects include: increased heart rate, pupil dilation, increased ventilation rate

 External and internal environments are being constantly monitored by sensors in the endocrine and nervous system Responses are coordinated and balanced to ensure survival. E.g., short term homeostatic mechanisms or long term like mating behaviour The coordination is mainly the result of the brain assessing the most appropriate response. The brain also regulates endocrine responses through the hypothalamus and its control of the pituitary gland

the fight or flight response

The perception of a threat leads to a number of physiological changes These are caused by the sympathetic nervous system being activated Physiological changes include:
Increased heart rate to pump blood around the body faster Muscles in bronchioles relax allowing for deeper breaths Glycogen is converted to glucose so there can be more respiration Arterioles in the digestive system constrict and blood is diverted to the heart, lungs and skeletal muscles, where the arterioles have dilated.

**norepinephrine is another name for noradrenaline and epinephrine is adrenaline

Cerebrum -Largest part of brain Divided into two hemispheres -Thin outer layer called cerebral cortex which is highly folded -Controls vision, hearing, learning, thinking.

the functions of the cerebrum, cerebellum, medulla oblongata and hypothalamus;

Hypothalamus -Controls body temp, etc (homeostasis) -Found beneath middle part of brain -Produces hormones that control the pituitary gland

cerebellum -Underneath the cerebrum and has a folded cortex -Important for muscle coordination, balance and posture.

Medulla oblongata -At the base of the brain: top of the spinal cord -Controls non-skeletal muscles -Automatically controls breathing and heart rate

the structural and functional differences between voluntary, involuntary and cardiac muscle;
Voluntary (skeletal ) muscle Involuntary (smooth) muscle Conscious Many muscles with many nuclei Regular cross striations (striped pattern) Found around joints Unconscious Each muscle fibre only has one nucleus No striped appearance Cardiac (heart) muscle

Myogenic (unconscious) Each muscle fibre only has one nucleus Some cross striations but not as much as voluntary muscle Found in heart

Found in gut/ arterioles

Many cms long

Spindle shaped 0.2mm long

Cylindrical, connected by intercalated discs, each fibre is branched

Contract rhythmically and dont fatigue

Some contract slowly for endurance and posture. Fatigue slowly

Contract slowly, fatigue slowly

describe the role of the brain and nervous system in the co-ordination of muscular movement

Skeletal muscles and joints

Skeletal muscles are attached to bones by tendons Ligaments attach bone to other bones (they hold them together) The type of joint between bones determines the type of movement possible
Ball & socket joints (e.g., shoulder) allow movement in all directions Gliding joints (e.g., wrist) allow a wide range of movement because small bones can glide over each other Hinge joints (e.g., elbow) allow movement in only one plane, like up and down

Your elbow
Bones of your lower arm are attached to biceps and triceps muscles by tendons As one muscle contracts, the other relaxes- this moves your arm Triceps are the extensor muscle, whilst biceps are the flexor muscle Muscles work in antagonistic pairs The elbow joint is a synovial joint. This contains fluid allowing for smooth movement

the sliding filament model of muscular contraction

Sarcomere
H-zone

Thick filament (myosin) Thin filament (mainly actin)

I- band

A- band

I- band

Thin filaments are mainly two strands of the protein actin coiled together. Each strand has globular subunits. Tropomyosin ( a rod shaped protein) reinforces the structure. A troponin complex is attached to each Tropomyosin molecule and is made of three polypeptides. One binds to actin, another to calcium and the final to Tropomyosin, holding the complex in place. The actin binding site is blocked by Tropomyosin while resting Thick filaments are made of the protein myosin. Each myosin has a tail and two protruding heads (one a binding site for actin, the other a binding site for ATP). Each thick filament has many myosin molecules with heads sticking out at opposite ends When a muscle contracts, the I-bands and Hzones shorten, while the A-bands remain the same length

2) Calcium ions also activate the enzyme ATPase, which hydrolyses ATP to ADP +Pi, to provide the energy for muscle contraction. This energy moves the myosin head which pulls the actin filament along with a rowing action

The power stroke

1) Action potentials depolarise the sarcolemma and it spreads down the T-tubules into the sarcoplasmic reticulum, causing Calcium ions to be released into the sarcoplasm. These bind to Troponin and cause it to change shape, pulling Tropomyosin out of the binding site, which then allows myosin to bind to an actin filament and form a cross bridge

4) When the muscle stops being stimulated, the calcium ions move back into sarcoplasmic reticulum via active transport. Troponin returns to their original shape and Tropomyosin moves to block binding sites again. Muscles arent contracted because there are no cross bridges, so the actin filaments slide back to their original positions, this lengthens the sarcomere

3) ATP also provides energy to break the cross bridge so the myosin head detaches from the actin filament after its moved. The myosin head then reattaches to a different site and forms a new cross bridge. This cycle repeats causing the muscle to contract. The cycle continues as long as there is enough ATP and calcium levels in the sarcoplasm is high

ATP and PCr provide energy for muscle contraction

ATP gets used up very quickly by muscles (its needed to break cross bridges and reset the myosin heads) so needs to be continually; this happens in three main ways:
Aerobic respiration: most ATP is generated by oxidative phosphorylation in the cells mitochondria. Aerobic respiration only works when theres oxygen so its good for long, low-intensity exercise e.g., jogging Anaerobic respiration: ATP is made rapidly by glycolysis. Unfortunately, lactate is produced and this builds up quickly and causes muscle fatigue ATP- phosphocreatine system (PCr) system: ATP is made by phophorylating ADP. PCr is stored inside cells and this system can produce ATP very quickly . Its good nfor short bursts of vigorous exercise e.g., tennis serve. Its anaerobic and doesnt produce lactate

compare and contrast the action of synapses and neuromuscular junctions;

A neuromuscular junction is a synapse between a motor neurone and a muscle cell. Neuromuscular junctions use acetylcholine (a neurotransmitter) which bind to nicotinic cholinergic receptors. The neurotransmitter triggers depolarisation in the postsynaptic cell
Neuromuscular junctions Neurotransmitter Postsynaptic receptors Number of postsynaptic receptors Acetylcholine Nicotinic cholinergic receptors Lots Synapses (between neurones) Various various Fewer

Postsynaptic cell
Postsynaptic membrane Effect of neurotransmitter binding to receptors

Muscle cell
Has clefts containing AChE

Neurone
Smooth

Muscle cell always contracts Action potential may or may not fire in the next neurone Depends on neurotransmitter

Removal of neurotransmitter Broken down by AChE