Opto 31

OPTICAL FIBER
WAVEGUIDES
Chapter 1
Introduction
to
Fibre Optic
Systems
P Ellis & M Grobler 2000
2/35
Optical Fibre Waveguides
Fibre optic transmission systems evolved
from the need for
Higher transmission capacity for
telecommunications applications
A communications medium unaffected by
noise in industrial environments
3/35
Fibre optics is an exciting and rapidly
changing field in which to be involved.
Compared to copper cable and radio
transmission it is a relatively easy subject to
understand and technology to work with.

4/35
The main advantages of fibre optic systems
are:
Unaffected by external EMI
Do not conduct electricity
Carry very high data rates
Transmit over long distances

5/35
Fibre optic cables versus copper cables

Bandwidth
Interference
Electrical isolation
Transmission distances
Size and weight
6/35
Use in hazardous gas areas
Security
Multidropping for LANs
Jointing and connectors
Terminal equipment
Test equipment
OPTICAL FIBER
WAVEGUIDES
Chapter 2
Ray Theory
EM Mode Theory
Cylindrical Fibers
Single Mode Fibers
8/35
Optical Fiber Waveguides
Typical waveguide
Cladding
Refractive index
n2
Core
Refractive index
n1
Typically n2 < n1
9/35
Ray Theory
Total Internal Reflection
Refractive index of a medium:
Is the ratio of the velocity of light in a vacuum
to the velocity of light in the medium.
Light propagates slower in a more dense
medium than in a less dense one.
Movement between two mediums with
different refractive indexes will cause
refraction.

10/35
Ray Theory
Refraction
Low Index
medium n2
(Air)
High Index
medium n1
(glass)
|
1

Incident ray
|
2

Exit ray
Partial internal
reflection
1
2
2
1
sin
sin
n
n
=
|
|
According to
Snells Law
we have:
11/35
Ray Theory
Critical Angle
Low Index
medium n2
(Air)
High Index
medium n1
(glass)
|
c

Incident ray
1
2
sin
n
n
c
= |
According to
Snells Law
we have:
12/35
Ray Theory
Total Internal Refraction
Low Index
medium n2
(Air)
High Index
medium n1
(glass)
|
Incident ray
|
>
|
c
At incidence less than
90 - |
c
, low loss
propagation will take
place
|
13/35
Ray Theory
Transmission in a perfect fiber
Low Index Cladding
|
| | |
|
|
High index core
Meridional ray as it passes through the axis of the
fiber core.
14/35
Ray Theory
Acceptance Angle
Not all rays entering the fiber will be
transmitted.
Light has to enter the fiber at an angle
smaller than u
a
, called the acceptance
angle to be propagated.
u
a
and |
c
is seldom the same ??

15/35
Ray Theory
Acceptance Angle
Low Index Cladding
|
| |
|
|
a

High index core
Acceptance
cone
Eventually lost
16/35
Ray Theory
Numerical Aperture
Numerical Aperture (NA) defines the
relationship between the acceptance angle
and the relative indices.
Indices involved:
Core index
Cladding index
Air index

17/35
Ray Theory
Numerical Aperture (2)
Low Index Cladding (n
2
)
Core (n
1
)
u
1
A
|
u
2

B
|
C
Air (n
0
)
According to Snells law we have:
.......(1) sin sin
2 1 1 0
u u n n =
Consider triangle ABC:
2) .........(
2
2
u
t
| =
18/35
Ray Theory
Substituting (2) into (1) we have:
Using the Trig identity sin
2
| +cos
2
| = 1 we have:
.......(3) cos sin
1 1 0
| u n n =
( ) .....(4) .. sin 1 sin
2
1
2
1 1 0
| u = n n
In the limiting case total internal reflection takes place
and we have | = |
c
and u
1
= u
a
From before we have:
1
2
sin
n
n
c
= |
19/35
Ray Theory
Substituting into (4) we have:
.....(5) .. 1 sin
2
1
2
1
2
2
1 0
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
n
n
n n
a
u
( ) .......(6) .. sin
2
1
2
2
2
1 0
n n n
a
= u
Equation (6) relates the refractive indices to the
acceptance angle and defines the numerical aperture.
20/35
Ray Theory
( ) ) ........(7 .. sin
2
1
2
2
2
1 0
n n n NA
a
= = u
The NA is sometimes given as the relative refractive index difference
(A) between the core and the cladding :
) ........(8 .. 1 for
2
2
1
2 1
2
1
2
2
2
1
<< A
= A
n
n n
n
n n
21/35
Ray Theory
( ) 9) .........( .. 2
2
1
1
A = n NA
Combining equations (7) & (8) we can write:
Equations (7) & (9) are indications of the light gathering power of
a fiber.
The Equations are independent of the core diameter of the fiber
and can be used for diameters as small as 8 m.
Beyond this the ray theory fail.
22/35
Ray Theory
Numerical Aperture Example 1
=
= =

5 , 78
50 , 1
47 , 1
sin sin
1
1
2
1
n
n
c
|
A silica fiber, with a diameter large enough to be considered by ray
theory, has a core refractive index of 1,5 and a cladding refractive
index of 1,47.
Determine: a) The critical angle at the core-cladding index.
b) The NA of the fiber.
c) The acceptance angle of the fiber in air.
Solution: a) Critical angle |
c
:
23/35
Ray Theory
Numerical Aperture Example 1 (2)
( ) ( )
3 , 0
47 , 1 50 , 1
2
1
2
1
2 2 2
2
2
1
=
= = n n NA
b) For the NA we have:
c) For the acceptance angle u
a
in air we have:
=
= =

4 , 17
30 , 0 sin sin
1 1
NA
a
u
24/35
Ray Theory
Numerical Aperture Example 2
21 , 0
) 02 , 0 ( 46 , 1 ) 2 (
2
1
2
1
1
=
= A = n NA
The relative refractive index difference for an optical fiber is 1%
a) Estimate the NA if the core index is 1,46.
b) Critical angle at the core cladding interface within the fiber.
Solution: a) for the NA we have:
25/35
Ray Theory
1
2
1
2 1
1
n
n
n
n n
=
= A
b) Critical angle:
First we calculate the relative refractive index difference.
01 , 0 1 1
1
2
= A =
n
n
99 , 0 =
26/35
Ray Theory
99 , 0 sin sin
1
1
2
1
= =
n
n
c
u
Now we can calculate the critical angle:
= 9 , 81
99 , 0 sin
1
=
27/35
Ray Theory
Skew Rays
Not all rays pass through the centre of the fiber.
Skew rays greatly outnumber the meridional rays.
These rays trace a helical path through the fiber.
The point at witch the ray exits the fiber depends
on the number of reflections.
The skew rays will tend to smooth the light output
if the input is not uniform.
The amount of smoothing is dependant on the
number of reflections
28/35
Ray Theory
Skew Rays (2)
Direction change
of 2
29/35
Ray Theory
Skew Rays (3)
Incident angle u
s

30/35
Ray Theory
Skew Rays (4)
Considering the skew ray we have the
relationship between the acceptance angle and
the Numerical aperture as:

u cos sin
as
NA =
For meridional rays cos =1 and u
as
becomes u
a
.
u
a
defines the minimum input angle for skew rays.
Skew rays proppogate near the outer surface of
the core.
The contribution of

skew rays are most
significant in fibers with large NAs

31/35
Ray Theory
Skew Rays: Example
An Optical fiber in air has a NA of 0,4. Compare
the acceptance angle meridional rays with that of
skew rays which change direction by 100 at
each reflection.
Solution
For meridional rays we have:
NA
a
1
sin
= u
4 , 0 sin
1
=
= 6 , 23
32/35
Ray Theory
Skew Rays: Example (2)
Solution
For Skew rays we have:
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

u
cos
sin
1
NA
as
|
.
|
\
|
=

50 cos
4 , 0
sin
1
= 5 , 38
Electromagnetic Wave
Theory
34/35
Electromagnetic wave theory
Electromagnetic waves
Adding EM wave theory will result in an improved
model.
All derivations are done from Maxwells
equations.
Solving Maxwells Equations the well-known
wave equations 2.25 and 2.26 results.
The solution of the wave equations are sinusoidal
waves.

35/35
Electromagnetic waves (2)
The basic solution of the wave equation is a sinusoidal wave,
which is a uniform plane wave given by the following equation:
) . ( exp
0
r k t j = =
Where:
e- angular frequency of the field
t - time
k - propagation vector which gives the direction of propagation and the rate
of change of phase with distance
r- direction of propagation
t 2
= k
k is also referred to as the free space wave number
36/35
r
Phase velocity (v
p
): The velocity of a point of constant phase in a wave.
( ) ( )
2
1
2
1
0 0
1 1
c c c
r r
p
v = =
Where:
c
0
- permittivity of free space
0
- permeability of free space
c
r
- relative permittivity

0 -
relative permeability

p
v n k c . / = =e
The relation between the optical frequency, wavelength and the
phase velocity is:
Where:
c - velocity of light in vacuum
n - refractive index

37/35
Modes in a planar guide
Optical fibres carry varying numbers
of rays of light.
From one to many thousands
Each ray is referred to as a mode of
light.
Fibres with large NAs or diameters
suffer from modal dispersion
38/35
Input pulse
Fundamental mode
High order mode Low order mode
N2
N1
Output pulse
39/35
Number of
discrete
modes
1 10 100
Core diameter in m
10
1
1000
100
10000
40/35
Phase and group velocity
As monochromatic light waves propagate along a wave
guide, points of constant phase travel at:
|
e
=
p
v
A group of waves with similar frequencies forms a group:
o|
oe
=
g
v
41/35
Cylindrical Fiber
Modes
THE normalized frequency of a fiber combines 3 important
design parameters:
2 / 1
1
) 2 (
2
) (
2
A = = n NA a V
t
a=core radius
A=relative refractive index difference
=operating wavelength
42/35
Cylindrical Fiber
Modes
Multimode fibres
Carry many modes of light
Core diameters of 50 micrometres or more
Distance of operation up to 5km
Digital bandwidth of 2 - 300 Mbit/s
Wavelength of operation 850 or 1300 nm
Light sources generally LEDs
43/35
Cylindrical Fiber
Modes
STEP INDEX MULTIMODE FIBRES
CORE N ~ 1.48
CLADDING N ~ 1.46
ACCEPTANCE ANGLE 14 DEGREES
MODAL DISPERSION 15 - 40 ns / km
BANDWIDTH 25 MHZ-KM
DIGITAL BANDWIDTH <10 MBPS
44/35
Cylindrical Fiber
Modes
Cheaper overall systems
Easier to terminate and splice
Three main constructions
50/125/250 NA ~ 0.2
62.5/125/250 NA ~ 0.275
100/140/250 NA ~ 0.29
The smaller the core diameter the lower the
attenuation, the higher the bandwidth, but the
less signal energy coupled into the fibre.
45/35
Cylindrical Fiber
Modes
Graded Index Multimode Fibres
Core to cladding refractive index changes 1.48 to 1.46
NA ~ 0.2
Acceptance angle ~ 12 degrees
Modal dispersion less than 5 ns / km
Bandwidth up to 1 GHz
Digital bandwidth 2 - 300 Mbps
46/35
Cylindrical Fiber
Modes
MONOMODE FIBRES
A step index fibre with a very small core
Carries only a very small number of modes
Also core and cladding refractive indices are very
close in value. Therefore the critical angle is very
large (Snell's Law). This helps reduce travelling
modes.
47/35
Cylindrical Fiber
Modes
Requires precise TX alignment or lose power into the cladding
No modal dispersion
Typical spec. 8.5/125/250
ATTENUATION
0.30 TO 1.0 dB /Km AT 1310 nm
0.15 TO 1.0 dB /Km AT 1550 nm
BANDWIDTH
Greater than 20GHz
Presently 5Gbps
Future 10 - 20 + Gbps
48/35
Cylindrical Fiber
Modes
NA
0.1 TO 0.15
Very small acceptance angle therefore must use laser with
precise alignment
Distance between repeaters
100 km for up to 2.5 Gbps
Wavelength of operation
Most common is 1300 nm
Moving towards 1550 nm as this has lower attenuation.
49/35
Cylindrical Fiber
Modes
Cost
Monomode cable is cheaper than
multimode cable !!!
TX / RX equipment is 3 to 10 times
that of multimode equipment

50/35
Cylindrical Fiber
Modes: Step index
The total number of guided modes for a step index fiber
is related to the V-number by:

2
2
V
M
S
~
Therefore the optical power is launched into a large number
of guided modes, each having different spatial field
distributions and propagation constants.
51/35
Cylindrical Fiber
Modes: Graded index
The total number of guided modes for a graded index fiber
is related to the V-number by:

)
2
)(
2
(
2
V
M
g
+
~
o
o
52/35
Cylindrical Fiber
Modes: Single mode fiber
The cut-off normalized frequency for single mode
step index fiber is V
C
= 2.405

The cut-off frequency for single mode
graded index fiber is:

2 / 1
) / 2 1 ( 405 . 2 o + =
C
V
53/35
Cylindrical Fiber
Spot size
6 2 / 3
879 . 2 619 . 1 65 . 0

+ + = V V
a
e

Opto 31

Diunggah oleh

Informasi Dokumen

Judul Asli

Hak Cipta

Format Tersedia

Bagikan dokumen Ini

Bagikan atau Tanam Dokumen

Opsi Berbagi

Apakah menurut Anda dokumen ini bermanfaat?

Apakah konten ini tidak pantas?

Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

Opto 31

Diunggah oleh

Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

OPTICAL FIBER

Anda mungkin juga menyukai