PHYSICS

FOR ENGINEERS PRESENTED BY Constantin BLAJ

In Memoriam
Prof. Alfred Schssler

F r e d d y
POLITEHNICA University Of Timioara, ROMANIA

LESSON 1 PHYSICS FOR ENGINEERS 20132014

STANDARD OF LENGTH, MASS AND TIME UNITS SYSTEM COORDINATE SYSTEMS VECTORS AND SCALARS
DEPARTMENT Fundamental of Physics for Engineers

THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM (SI)

The International System is often abbreviated SI, which stands for Systme International in French. This scheme in its earlier form, mks, has existed since the 1800s, but more recently it has been defined in a more rigorous fashion by the General Conference on Weights and Measures. The base units in SI quantify displacement, mass, time, temperature, electric current, brightness of light, and amount of matter (in terms of the number of atoms or molecules in a sample). Respectively, the units in SI are known as the meter, the kilogram, the second, the kelvin (not degree kelvin), the ampre, the candela, and the mole. Well define these units in detail, shortly after.

THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM (SI)

The International Bureau of Weights and Measures

THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM (SI)

Many units in everyday and scientific use are not SI units. In some cases these units have been designated by the BIPM as "non-SI units accepted for use with the SI". The units of time (minute, min; hour, h; day, d) in use besides the SI second, are specifically accepted for use. The year is specifically not included but has a recommended conversion factor. The Celsius temperature scale; kelvins are rarely employed in everyday use. Electric energy is often billed in kilowatt-hours, instead of megajoules. Battery charge is often measured as milliampere-hours (mAh), instead of coulombs. The nautical mile and knot (nautical mile per hour) used to measure travel distance and speed of ships and aircraft (1 International nautical mile = 1852 m or approximately 1 minute of latitude). It is permitted the "temporary use" of the foot for altitude. Astronomical distances measured in astronomical units, parsecs, and light-years instead of, for example, petametres (a light-year is about 9.461 Pm or about 9461000000000000 m). Atomic scale units used in physics and chemistry, such as the ngstrm, electron volt, atomic mass unit and barn. Blood pressure and sometimes atmospheric pressure are measured in mmHg (Torr).

UNITS SYSTEM - Length

Originally, the meter (named also the metre, probably by respect to the French Revolution) was defined in terms of the distance measured along the earths surface between the north pole and the equator, along the meridian passing trough Paris. Eventually, a more accurate measurement standard was needed, and by international agreement the meter became the distance between two marks on a bar of platinumiridium alloy kept in extremely precise conditions (temperature, pressure, humidity etc) in Paris. Historical, this International Prototype Metre was the standard from 1889 to 1960.

UNITS SYSTEM - Length

UNITS SYSTEM - Length

The metre was assumed to be as one ten-millionth of the length of the Earth's meridian along a quadrant, that is the distance from the equator to the North Pole. In 1791, the French Academy of Sciences selected the meridional definition, to the detriment of the pendulum length definition (gravitational acceleration is not constant all over the Earth). From 1792 to 1799 the commission created has measured the distance between the Dunkerque belfry and Montjuc castle, Barcelona In 1793, France adopted as its official unit of length a metre based on provisional results from the expedition. It was later determined that the first prototype metre bar was short by a fifth of a millimetre because of miscalculation of the flattening of the Earth, but this length became the standard.

The circumference of the Earth through the poles is therefore slightly more than forty million metres (40 007 863)

UNITS SYSTEM - Length

Belfry, Dunkirk (Dunkerque)- the northern end of the meridian arc Fortress of Montjuc - the southerly end of the meridian arc

UNITS SYSTEM - Length

After 1960, a new standard was settled when the eleventh CGPM defined the metre in the new SI system as equal to 1,650,763.73 wavelengths of the orange-red emission line in the electromagnetic spectrum of the krypton-86 atom in a vacuum. Today, to meet further demands for higher accuracy, the meter is defined as the distance that light travels in a vacuum in a time of 1/299 792 458 second. This definition arises because the speed of light is a universal constant, defined to be 299 792 458 m/s.

UNITS SYSTEM - Length

1790 May 8 The French National Assembly decides that the length of the new metre would be equal to the length of a pendulum with a half-period of one second. 1791 March 30 The French National Assembly accepts the proposal by the French Academy of Sciences that the new definition for the metre be equal to one ten-millionth of the length of the Earth's meridian along a quadrant through Paris, that is the distance from the equator to the north pole. 1795 Provisional metre bar constructed of brass. 1799 December 10 The French National Assembly specifies the platinum metre bar, constructed on 23 June 1799 and deposited in the National Archives, as the final standard. 1889 September 28 The first General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) defines the metre as the distance between two lines on a standard bar of an alloy of platinum with ten percent iridium, measured at the melting point of ice.

UNITS SYSTEM - Length

1927 October 6 The seventh CGPM adjusts the definition of the metre to be the distance, at 0 C, between the axes of the two central lines marked on the prototype bar of platinum-iridium, this bar being subject to one standard atmosphere of pressure and supported on two cylinders of at least one centimetre diameter, symmetrically placed in the same horizontal plane at a distance of 571 millimetres from each other. 1960 October 14 The 11th CGPM defines the metre to be equal to 1,650,763.73 wavelengths in vacuum of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the 2p10 and 5d5 quantum levels of the krypton-86 atom. 1983 October 21 The 17th CGPM defines the metre as equal to the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1299,792,458 of a second. 2002 The International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM) considers the metre to be a unit of proper length and thus recommends this definition be restricted to "lengths which are sufficiently short for the effects predicted by general relativity to be negligible with respect to the uncertainties of realisation".

DISTANCES
One light-year 9.46 1015 m Mean orbit radius of the Earth 1.5 1011 m Mean distance from the Earth to the Moon 3.8 108 m Distance from the equator to the North Pole 1 107 m (used to define the length of 1m French Revolution) Mean radius of the Earth 6.4 106 m Distance from Timisoara to Viena 458103m Altitude (elevation) of Wien 210m Altitude (elevation) of Timisoara 91m Height of Timisoara Orthodox Cathedral , about 96 m Length of A4 sheet of paper 2.97 10-1m Length of a mosquito, about 510-3 m Size of smallest visible dust particles 1 10-4 m Size of usual cells of most living organisms 1 10-5 m Diameter of a hydrogen atom 1 10-10 m Diameter of a uranium nucleus 1.4 10-14 m Diameter of a proton 110-15 m

UNITS SYSTEM - Mass

The definition of a kilogram as a unit of mass has also undergone changes over the years. The mass of an object indicates the tendency of the object to continue in motion with a constant velocity. Originally, the kilogram was expressed in terms of mass of a specific amount of water (1 dm3 of water at 40C). Today, one kilogram is defined to be the mass of a standard cylinder of platinumiridium alloy, kept under very strict conditions in Paris, at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures. Many beginning students of physics tend to confuse the physical quantities called weight and mass.

UNITS SYSTEM - Mass

UNITS SYSTEM - Time

Candle, sand and and water time measurement devices

UNITS SYSTEM - Time

UNITS SYSTEM - Time

Before 1960, the standard of time was defined in terms of the average length of a solar day in the year 1900.

The second, was defined to be (1/60)(1/60)(1/24) = 1/86 400 of the average solar day.
The second is now defined as 9 192 631 770 times the period of oscillation of radiation from the cesium atom.
Units of measurement for time have historically been based on the movement of the Sun (as seen from Earth; giving the solar day and the year) and the Moon (giving the month). Shorter intervals were measured by physiological periods such as drawing breath, winking or the heartbeat.

UNITS SYSTEM - Time

Based on the second as the base unit, the following time units are in use: minute (1 min = 60 s) hour (1 h = 60 min = 3.6 ks) Julian day (1 d = 24 h = 86.4 ks) week (7 d = 604.8 ks) Julian year (1 a = 365.25 d = 31.5576 Ms) century (100 a = 3.15576 Gs) millennium (1 ka = 31.5576 Gs) There are a number of proposals for decimal time, or decimal calendars, notably in the French Republican Calendar of 1793. Such systems have either ten days per week, a multiple of ten days in a month, or ten months per year. A suggestion for hexadecimal time divides the Julian day into 16 hexadecimal hours of 1h 30 min each, or 65,536 hexadecimal seconds (1 hexsec 1.32 s).

Standard prefixes for the SI units of measure

peta tera giga mega kilo hecto deka deci centi milli micro nano pico femto P T G M k h da d c m n p f

10+15
10+12 10+9 10+6 10+3 10+2 10+1 101 102 103 106 109 1012 1015

THE AMPERE
The ampere, symbolized by the uppercase English letter A (or abbreviated as amp), is the unit of electric current. A flow of approximately 6.241506 1018 electrons per second passing a given point, trough the section of an electrical conductor, produces an electrical current of 1 A. The formal definition of the ampere is highly theoretical: 1 A is the amount of constant charge-carrier flow (DC current) through two straight, parallel, infinitely thin, perfectly conducting media placed 1 m apart in a vacuum that results in a force between the conductors of 2 10-7 newton per linear meter. There are two problems with this definition. First we havent defined the term newton yet; second, this definition asks you to imagine some theoretically ideal objects that cannot exist in the real world. But this definition is very satisfactory for engineers. It has been said that mathematicians and physicists cant live with each other and they cant live without each other. Probably, engineers are in the same relations with both mathematicians and physicists. The original "International Ampere" was defined electrochemically as the current required to deposit 1.118 milligrams of silver per second from a solution of silver nitrate. Compared to the SI ampere, the difference is 0.015%.

THE KELVIN
The SI unit of temperature is the kelvin, symbolized K, uppercase. It is a measure of how much heat exists relative to absolute zero, which represents the absence of all heat and which is therefore the coldest possible temperature. A temperature of 0 K represents absolute zero. Pure water at sea level freezes (or melts) at 273.15 K and boils (or condenses) at 373.15 K. Reference: for reasons of precision and reproducibility, the state chosen is the triple point of water. This is the unique combination of temperature and pressure at which solid water (ice), liquid water, and water vapor can all coexist. It occurs at a temperature 0.01C or 273.16K. There are a lot of temperature scales and at the time when the thermodynamic phenomena will be presented we explain some of them (Celsius, Fahrenheit, Reaumur etc).

THE CANDELA
The candela, symbolized by the lowercase pair of English letters cd, is the unit of luminous intensity. It is equivalent to 1/683 of a watt of radiant energy emitted at a frequency of 5.4 1014 hertz (cycles per second) in a solid angle of one steradian. A solid angle of 1 sr is represented by a cone with its apex at the center of a sphere and intersecting the surface of the sphere in a circle such that, within the circle, the enclosed area on the sphere is equal to the square of the radius of the sphere. There are 4, or approximately 12.56636, steradians in a complete sphere. Another definition for the candela, more precise: 1 cd represents the radiation from a surface area of 1.66710-6 square meter of a perfectly radiating object called a blackbody at the solidification temperature of pure platinum, meaning 1772.0 C (2045.15 K, 3221.6 F) .

THE MOLE
The mole, symbolized or abbreviated by the lowercase English letters mol, is the standard unit of material quantity. The mole is a unit of measurement used in chemistry to express amounts of a chemical substance, defined as an amount of a substance that contains as many elementary entities (e.g., atoms, molecules, ions, electrons) as there are atoms in 12 grams of pure carbon-12 (12C), the isotope of carbon with atomic weight 12. This corresponds to a value of 6.02214179(30)1023 elementary entities of the substance. It is one of the base units in the International System of Units, and has the unit symbol mol. The number of molecules in a mole (known as Avogadro's number) is defined so that the mass of one mole of a substance, expressed in grams, is exactly equal to the substance's mean molecular weight. For example, the mean molecular weight of natural water is about 18.015, so one mole of water is about 18.015 grams. This property considerably simplifies many chemical and physical computations.

COORDINATE SYSTEMS
A coordinate system used to specify locations in space consists of: A fixed reference point O, called the origin A set of specified axes or directions with an appropriate scale and labels on the axes Instructions that tell us how to label a point in space relative to the origin and axes One convenient coordinate system that we will use frequently is the Cartesian coordinate system, sometimes called the
rectangular coordinate system.

COORDINATE SYSTEMS
Cylindrical system

COORDINATE SYSTEMS
Spherical system

SCALARS AND VECTORS

In order to give a definition of what means a scalar first we discuss some examples. The volume of water in Baza 2 (Politehnica ) swimming pool might be 375 cubic meters. The left time for the last action of BC Timisoara , in the fourth quarter of a game could be 1.8 seconds . The lowest temperature in the first days of February 2012 in Timisoara was -19 C. In cases like these, only the size of the numbers matters. A sign, + or -, and units are required also. Volume, time and temperature are examples of scalar quantities. A scalar quantity is one that can be described with a single number (including any units) giving its size or magnitude. The number of grapes in a bunch is also an other example of a scalar quantity. If you are told that there are 38 grapes in the bunch, this statement completely specifies the information; no other specification such as about a certain direction is required. The information given by a scalar (number, sign, unit) is quite enough to describe completely the situation quantified by the scalar.

SCALARS AND VECTORS

An often-cited result of Earth's equatorial bulge is that the highest point on Earth, measured from the center outwards, is the peak of Mount Chimborazo in Ecuador, rather than Mount Everest. But since the ocean, like the Earth and the atmosphere, bulges, Chimborazo is not as high above sea level as Everest is. The elevation of a geographic location is its height above a fixed reference point, most commonly a reference geoid, a mathematical model of the Earth's sea level as an equipotential gravitational surface. Altitude is a distance measurement, usually in the vertical or "up" direction, between a reference datum and a point or object. Altitude is measured using Mean Sea Level (MSL). Mean sea level (MSL) is a measure of the average height of the ocean's surface (such as the halfway point between the mean high tide and the mean low tide). Tide is the periodic rise and fall of the waters of the ocean and its inlets, produced by the attraction of the moon and sun, and occurring about every 12 hours MSL is used as a standard in reckoning (count; computation; calculation) land elevation.

SCALARS AND VECTORS

A scalar is a quantity that has only magnitude, measure unite and a reference. Some examples of scalar quantities are: distance, temperature, time, mass, density, pressure, electric charge, electric potential etc. The speed of an object is a scalar (e.g. wind speed is 80 km/h), while its velocity is not (i.e. wind velocity is 80 km/h north or 180 km/h NNE). If the distribution in a domain of a scalar quantity is known, than this information giving the values, point by point, of the scalar quantity in a certain area (or volume) can be called as scalar field. A vector is a quantity that has both magnitude and direction; such as : force, velocity (vector associated to speed), gradient of a scalar, etc. In order to have complete information about a vector field it must be known the magnitude (module) and the direction of the vector quantity in each point of the domain. It is also possible that a time variation of the vector quantity occurs.

SYMBOLS FOR VECTORS AND UNIT VECTORS

For a vector quantity the symbol can be: - the letter (capital or small) with arrow above - the letter (capital or small) with line above (overline) F - the letter in bold (boldface type) In this course, as well as in some of the references recommended in text, vectors will be indicated by boldface type, as F in the previous example. For unit vectors i, j and k symbols are used for the Cartesian System. ax or ux or 1x symbols are used also for unit vectors along x direction. Similar for y and z.

UNIT VECTORS
Vector quantities are often expressed in terms of unit vectors. A unit vector is a dimensionless vector with a magnitude of 1 and is used to specify a given direction. Unit vectors have no other physical significance. They are used simply as a bookkeeping convenience when describing a direction in space. The hat over the letters is a common notation for a unit vector. The 3 unit vectors form a set of mutually perpendicular unit vectors as shown in figure.

COMPONENTS OF A VECTOR

COMPONENTS OF VECTORS
When using these component equations, must be measured counterclockwise from the positive x axis. From our triangle, it follows that the magnitude of A and its direction are related to its components through the Pythagorean theorem and the definition of the tangent function. If you choose reference axes or an angle other than those shown previously, the components of the vector must be modified accordingly. In many applications, it is more convenient to express the components of a vector in a coordinate system having axes that are not horizontal and vertical but are still perpendicular to each other. Most often this is used when tangent and normal components are expressed either for a surface (closed or not) either for a line.

VECTOR ALGEBRA
These four representations of vectors are equal because all four vectors have the same magnitude and point in the same direction. Addition of vectors:

MULTIPLICATION OF VECTORS
Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar If a vector is multiplied by a positive scalar quantity s, the product is a vector that has the same direction and magnitude. If s is a negative scalar quantity, the vector obtained by multiplication with s is directed opposite to the initial vector . (because of the negative sign). Multiplication of Two Vectors Two vectors can be multiplied in two different ways to produce either a scalar or a vector quantity. The scalar product (or dot product) is a scalar quantity equal to AB cos , where is the angle between the two vectors . The vector product (or cross product) is a vector quantity whose magnitude is equal to AB sin AB ; the direction is given by the right hand screw role.

SCALAR (DOT) PRODUCT

VECTOR (CROSS) PRODUCT

CGS AND FPS

THE CGS SYSTEM In the centimeter-gram-second (cgs) system, the base units are the centimeter (exactly 0.01 meter), the gram (exactly 0.001 kilogram), the second, the degree Celsius (approximately the number of Kelvins minus 273), the ampere, the candela, and the mole. THE ENGLISH SYSTEM In the English or foot-pound-second (fps) system, the base units are the foot (approximately 30.5 centimeters, precisely 0.3048 m ), the pound (1 kg equivalent to about 2.2 pounds in the gravitational field at the Earths surface; 1 pound being precisely 0.45359237 kg ), the second, the degree Fahrenheit (where water freezes at 32 degrees and boils at 212 degrees at standard sea-level atmospheric pressure), the ampere, the candela, and the mole.

CONVERTING BETWEEN UNITS

1. In all calculations, write down the units explicitly. 2. Treat all units as algebraic quantities. In particular, when identical units are divided, they are eliminated algebraically. 3. Use the conversion factors presented before. Be guided by the fact that multiplying or dividing an equation by a factor of 1 does not alter the equation. 4. Check to see that your calculations are correct by verifying that the units combine algebraically to give the desired unit for the answer. Left side of one equation must have same units as the rights side of the same equation. 5. Only quantities with the same units can be added or subtracted.

UNIT CONSISTENCY AND CONVERSIONS

When using equations that express relationships among physical quantities, these quantities are represented in equations by algebraic symbols. In such an equation each algebraic symbol denotes both a number and unit. An equation must be always dimensionally consistent. Lets take an example: x = v0t + at2/2 The quantity x on the left side has the dimension of length. For the equation to be dimensionally correct, the quantity on the right side must also have the dimension of length. Also the two terms from the right side must both have the same unit, meter. Please verify the previous statement.

UNIT CONSISTENCY AND CONVERSIONS

Sometimes it is necessary to convert units from one system to another or to convert within a system, for example, from kilometers to meters. For example, suppose we wish to convert 15.0 in. to centimeters. Because 1 in. is 2.54 cm, we multiply by a conversion factor 2.54cm/in that is the appropriate ratio of these equal quantities and find that

15in 2.54cm/in=38.1cm
Notice that we put the unit of an inch in the denominator and that it cancels with the unit in the original quantity. The remaining unit is the centimeter, which is our desired result.

UNIT CONSISTENCY AND CONVERSIONS

Conversions between common units of speed

m/s 1 m/s = 1 1 km/h = 0.278 1 mph = 0.447 1 knot = 0.514 1 ft/s = 0.3048 km/h 3.6 1 1.609 1.852 1.09728 mph 2.2369 0.6213 1 1.1507 0.681818 knot 1.9438 0.53995 0.868976 1 0.592484 ft/s 3.2808 0.911344 1.466667 1.687810 1

ADDITION OF TWO VECTORS

A vector can be described with a number and an angle as A = 2337 (polar coordinates), or C = 47193. The vector A would be written also as A = 18.4i + 13.8j and C = -45.8i - 10.6j * Add the vectors A and C. Solution: The addition of A and C is now accomplished by adding the components S = (18.4-45.8)i + +(13.8-10.6)j