Thermal Processes

ENVI 1400 : Lecture 6

Radiation Processes
reflected solar radiation 107 W m2 Incoming solar radiation 342 W m2 Outgoing longwave radiation 235 W m2 40 30

Reflected by clouds, aerosol & atmosphere

77

Absorbed by atmosphere
67 24 Reflected by surface 30 168
Absorbed by surface thermals Evapotranspiration

165 emitted by atmosphere

78

350 40

back radiation

324

24

78

390
Surface radiation

324
Absorbed by surface
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ENVI 1400 : Meteorology and Forecasting

Adiabatic Processes
An adiabatic process is one in which no energy enters or leaves the system. Many atmospheric processes are adiabatic (or nearly so) particularly those involving the vertical movement of air.
Air is a poor thermal conductor, and mixing often slow enough for a body of air to retain its identity distinct from the surrounding air during ascent.

Adiabatic Processes:
Ascent of convective plumes Large scale lifting/subsidence Condensation/evaporation within an airmass

Non-Adiabatic Processes:
Radiative heating/cooling Surface heating/cooling Loss of water through precipitation Addition of water from evaporation of precipitation falling from above

Near-surface processes are frequently non-adiabatic.

ENVI 1400 : Meteorology and Forecasting

Lapse Rate
Lapse Rate is the term given to the vertical gradient of temperature. The fall in temperature with altitude of dry air that results from the decrease in pressure is called the Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate = -9.8C/km.
Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate
Altitude

1km

9.8C Temperature

ENVI 1400 : Meteorology and Forecasting

 Condensation releases latent heat, thus saturated air cools less with altitude than dry air. There is no single value for the saturated adiabatic lapse rate. It increases as temperature decreases, from as low as 4C/km for very warm, tropical air, up to 9C/km at -40C.

Altitude

Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate

Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate

Temperature

ENVI 1400 : Meteorology and Forecasting

Pressure & Temperature

P5 P5 P4 P3 P2 P1 P0 P3 P2 P1 P4

cool

warm

P0

A column of air has pressure levels P1, P2, etc. If the column is warmed, the air will expand and its density at any given level decrease. The vertical interval between pressure levels increases, so that at any given altitude the pressure in the warmer column is greater than in the cooler. N.B. since the total mass of air in the column is constant, the pressure at the surface does not change
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ENVI 1400 : Meteorology and Forecasting

Cold-core Low intensifies with height

Warm-core High intensifies with height

L warm cool warm cool

H warm cool

Warm-core Low weakens with height, may form a high aloft

cold-core High weakens with height, may form a low aloft

H L

cool

L warm

H cool warm cool warm

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ENVI 1400 : Meteorology and Forecasting

 Mid-latitude low-pressure cells have colder air to the rear. As a result, the axis of the low slopes towards the colder air

Cold low

Warm high

Sea-level isobars 500 mb contours

ENVI 1400 : Meteorology and Forecasting

 High pressure cells slope towards the warmest air aloft. The centre of the cell at 3000m may be displaced 10-15 towards the equator.

Cold low

Warm high

Sea-level isobars 500 mb contours

ENVI 1400 : Meteorology and Forecasting

The Thermal Low

Thermal lows result from the strong contrast in surface heating between land and sea Land heats up (solar radiation) and cools down (infra-red radiation) much more rapidly than ocean large diurnal cycle cross-coast temperature gradient N.B. A thermal low results from fine, clear, warm weather, and thus differs from the depressions associated with cloud and bad weather.
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1. Start with a horizontally uniform pressure distribution. Solar radiation starts to warm land. Air near surface is warmed by land, convection mixes warm air upwards and whole boundary layer warms.

2. Air over land warms and expands. Cant expand sideways, so column expand upwards produces high pressure aloft. N.B. Surface pressure remains constant at this stage. cool

cool

warm

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3. Horizontal pressure gradient aloft drives a flow from over land to over ocean. H

cool

warm

cool 4. Mass of air in column over land is reduced surface pressure falls to produce a surface low. High pressure aloft weakens, but is maintained by continued heating at surface. Surface pressure gradient drives flow from sea to land: the sea breeze.
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cool

L warm

cool

ENVI 1400 : Meteorology and Forecasting

5. When solar heating stops, pressure driven flows act to equalize pressure, restoring conditions to the initial uniform pressure field. If land cools sufficiently at night, the reverse situation can be established. Over large land masses there may be insufficient time over night for the sea breeze to reach regions far from the coast, and a weak surface low is maintained over night. This then deepens during the following days, and a heat low may be maintained for days or weeks, until synoptic conditions change.
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H warm cool warm

ENVI 1400 : Meteorology and Forecasting

Sea Breeze
Formation of local thermal low over land, results in the formation of a sea-breeze In-flowing cool air from sea forms a sea-breeze front a miniature cold front Air ahead of the front is forced upward, contributing to the formation of cumulus.
950 mb 975 mb 1000 mb

25C

15C

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Pressure as an indicator of temperature

Because the depth of a layer of air increases as its temperature increases, we can use the difference in altitude between two constant pressure levels as an indicator of the mean temperature of the layer. Charts are usually produced of the depth of the layer between 1000 and 500 mb. The layer depth is usually quoted in deca-metres (10s of metres) A useful rule of thumb is that for 1000-500 mb layer depths less than 528 dm (5280 m) any precipitation will fall as snow rather than rain.

ENVI 1400 : Meteorology and Forecasting

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SLP (mb) & 1000-500 thickness : 48hr forecast valid 0000 040922
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SLP (mb) & 1000-500 thickness (dm) : 36hr forecast valid 0000 040930
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SLP (mb) & 1000-500 thickness (dm) : analysis valid 0000 040930
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2C

12C

850 mb Temperature (2C contours), RH (%), wind (m s-1) : analysis valid 0000 040930
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Surface temperature (2C contours) and SLP (mb)(5mb contours) : analysis valid 0600 040930
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The Thermal Wind

It is commonly observed that clouds at different altitudes move in different directions winds are in different directions. The gradient of wind velocity (speed & direction) is called the (vertical) wind shear. In the free air, away from surface (where friction effects complicate matters), the wind shear depends upon the temperature structure of the air. The thermal wind is a theoretical wind component equal to the difference between the actual wind at two different altitudes. Any two levels can be used, but unless otherwise stated the altitudes of the 1000mb and 500mb levels are usually used. Note that the 1000mb level might be below sea level, and is usually within the boundary layer and thus influenced by friction effects at the surface.
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ENVI 1400 : Meteorology and Forecasting

cold

LOW

warm
500mb
HIGH

Vg(1000) LOW 996 1000mb 1004 1008 HIGH

ENVI 1400 : Meteorology and Forecasting

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500-1000 mb thickness 5640

5700

5580

LOW VG1000 5640

LOW 0

VG500

VT 5760

5700

60
120 Contours of 1000 mb surface 180

5820
HIGH

Contours of 500 mb surface

HIGH

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 Note that cold air is to the left of the thermal wind vector (looking along wind) in the northern hemisphere, to the right in the southern hemisphere. The decrease in temperature towards the poles results in a westerly thermal wind in the upper atmosphere in both hemispheres.

The largest meridional temperature gradient occurs in mid-latitudes across the polar front. The thermal wind makes up a significant component of the jet-stream, located over the upper part of the polar front.

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