Boundary Layer Flow

Lab. Mekanika Fluida Teknik Mesin-FTUI Dr.I r. Harinaldi, M.
Eng
Universitas Indonesia
Fakultas Teknik Jurusan Teknik Mesin
Lab. Mekanika Fluida Teknik Mesin-FTUI Dr.I r. Harinaldi, M.Eng
Introduction
When a fluid flows past a solid surface, the fluid velocity at
the solid surface must be the same as that of the solid surface
If the solid surface is stationary, the velocity of the fluid at the
surface must be zero
There is a narrow region close to the surface:
the velocity increases with large gradient
(zero at the solid surface to the velocity of the mainstream)
the viscous action is dominant
large shear stresses in that region
The narrow region is known as boundary layer
The subject concerned with the study of velocity gradients,
shear stresses, forces and energy loss in the boundary layer
is called boundary-layer theory
The simplest case of boundary layer formation is when a free-
stream approaches parallel to a sharp-edged, thin, smooth flat
plate
Introduction
Boundary layer region over a flat plate
The fluid with a uniform free-stream velocity U, retarded in the
vicinity of the solid surface and the boundary layer region
begins at the sharp leading edge
At subsequent points downstream the leading edge, the
boundary layer region increases because the retarded fluid is
further retarded
Introduction
Boundary layer region over a flat plate
The velocity gradient at the outer edge of the layer behaves
asymptotically and an arbitrary line of demarcation is drawn
to mark the end of boundary-layer region
The limit is placed at a distance where the velocity reaches
99% of the mainstream velocity and the distance where 99%
velocity is reached is called the boundary-layer thickness,
usually denoted by o
y < o 0< u < 0,99U
y = o u = 0,99U
y > o 0,99 < u < U
Development of Boundary Layer
General
The boundary layer starts at the leading edge of a solid
surface and the boundary layer thickness increases with the
distance x along the surface
Changes take place in the nature of flow as the layer grows,
referred to as the development of boundary-layer
Near the leading edge: the thickness is small, the flow can be
laminar and the layer is said to be laminar boundary layer, the
velocity profile may be approximated by a parabola
Transition zone: as the thickness of the layer increases in the
downstream direction, the laminar layer becomes unstable and
the motion within it is disturbed and irregular which leads to a
transition from laminar to turbulent boundary layer
Further downstream, the boundary layer is turbulent and
continues to grow in thickness, the velocity profile in the
turbulent boundary layer follows a logarithmic law
Flow over a Flat Plate
0 < x < x
C1
laminar parabolic
x
C1
< x < x
C2
transition transition and uncertain
x
C2
< x < x
CS
turbulent (attached) logarithmic
x
cs
< x turbulent (separated) partly reversed and forward
Re
x
Ux
= critical
Lower at C
1
: Re
x
= 3 ~ 3,2 x 10
5

Upper at C
2
: Re
x
= 5,5 x 10
5

Flow in a Round Pipe
The final character of the flow is laminar
The final character of the flow is turbulent
the entire development is in the
laminar region
starts with a laminar profile
undergoes a transition
change over to turbulent profile and
stays turbulent thereafter
grow only up to the center-line
the length of development depends
on the surface finish, initial level of
turbulence , downstream conditions
and properties of fluid
Rate of Growth of Boundary Layer
The rate of growth of the boundary layer is governed by the
Reynolds number Re based upon the distance x from the
leading edge
The dependence is different in laminar and turbulent regions
Laminar:
0,5
5
Re x
o
=
Turbulent:
0,2
0, 37
Re x
o
=
0,5
x o
0,8
x o
Rate of Growth of Boundary Layer
Due to dependence of o upon Re, it may be concluded that the
boundary layer thickness is likely to be more:
at a point downstream the flow than at a point upstream of it
for a lower free-stream velocity U than for a higher one
for a more viscous fluid than for a less viscous fluid
for a lower density fluid
In addition, the boundary layer growth is influenced by the:
roughness of the surface
Roughness of a surface adds to the disturbance in the flow and
hastens the transition from laminar to turbulent flow
the pressure gradient in the direction of flow
If the pressure increases along the direction of flow (cp/ cx > 0) the
transition to turbulence is hastened Critical Re is lower
If the pressure decreases along the direction of flow (cp/ cx < 0) the
transition to turbulence is delayed Critical Re is higher
Example:
boundary-layer growth is more rapid for flow over the convex
shaped (upper) surface of an aerofoil than for flow over a flat plate
Estimates of Boundary Layer Thickness
For practical purposes, the boundary layer region is defined in
three alternative ways:
Boundary layer thickness, o
the distance y where u becomes 99% U
only to approximate the region of non-uniform flow
devoid of any physical interpretation and is not commonly used in
engineering

Displacement thickness, o*
The distance y by which the external free stream is effectively
displaced due to the formation of the boundary layer

Momentum Thickness, u
The distance y corresponding to the momentum defect brought
about by the actual profile in relation to the uniform profile
Estimates of Boundary Layer Thickness
Boundary layer thickness:
0,99 u U
y o
=
=
Displacement thickness:
if a free stream of velocity U is effectively
displaced by o* the loss of flow per unit
time over the displacement equals :

For incompressible flow:
0
* ( ) U U u dy o
=
}
0
* (1 )
u
dy
U
o
=
}
* / 3 (laminar)
* / 8 (turbulent)
o o
o o
~
~
Momentum thickness:
For a displacement u the loss of momentum over the displacement per
unit time equals :

For incompressible flow
2
0
( ) U u U u dy u
=
}
0
(1 )
u u
dy
U U
u
=
}
/ 8 (laminar)
7 / 72 (turbulent)
u o
u o
~
~
Boundary Layer Equations
Discussed through 'order of magnitude' analysis of Navier-
Stokes equations
Considering a two-dimensional steady incompressible flow
over a flat plate without a pressure gradient along the flow:
Continuity equation:

Momentum equation:
0
u v
x y
c c
+ =
c c
2 2
2 2
1
Re
u u p u u
u v
x y x x y
| | c c c c c
+ = + +
|
c c c c c
\ .
2
2
1 u u p u
u v
x y x y

c c c c
+ = +
c c c c
2 2
2 2
1
Re
v v p v v
u v
x y y x y
| | c c c c c
+ = + +
|
c c c c c
\ .
0
u v
x y
c c
+ =
c c
Comparatively small,
can be ignored
Skin Friction (Drag)
The drag or skin-friction on a flat plate can be evaluated from a
knowledge of the velocity profile near the plate
At a distance x from the leading edge, the shear stress t is:
0
0 y
u
y
t
=
| | c
=
|
c
\ .
The shear force or drag over a small distance dx per unit
width (t
o
dx) must equal the rate of change of momentum
over the distance x
Consider a small control
volume AS
1
S
2
B bounded
by the outer edge of the
boundary layer as shown
in figure
Mass flow rate entering the control volume
at the station AS
1

1
0
m udy
o
=
}
Mass flow rate leaving the control volume
at the station BS
2

( ) 2
0 0
d
m udy udy dx
dx
o o
= +
} }
Momentum flux entering AS
1

2
0
u dy
o
}
Mass flow rate entering the edge of boundary
layer S
1
S
2
( ) 2 1
0
d
m m udy dx
dx
o
=
}
Momentum flux leaving BS
2
( )
2 2
0 0
d
u dy u dy dx
dx
o o
+
} }
Momentum flux entering the edge of boundary
layer S
1
S
2
( )
0
d
U udy dx
dx
o
}
The rate of change of momentum between
the inflow and outflow is equal to the force
exerted by the flat plate on the control
volume
( ) ( )
2
0 0
0
( )
d d
u dy dx U udy dx
dx dx
d
u u U dy dx
dx
o o
o

(

} }
}
Drag force exerted by the fluid on the plate is equal to and
opposite to the force exerted by the flat plate on the control
volume:
0
( )
o
d
D dx u u U dy dx
dx
o
t
(
= =
(

}
Using the definition of momentum thickness:
(von Karman momentum integral equation)
2
o
d
U
dx
u
t =
For flow against pressure gradient (dp/dx)
the equation is:
2
o
dp d
U
dx dx
u
t + =
2
0
(1 )
o
d u u
U dy
dx U U
o
t
(
=
(

}
The drag on the length Ax of the plate per
unit width
o
D x t A = A
The total drag on the plate of length l per
unit width
0
l
o
D dx t =
}
Coefficient of drag for the plate:
1, 328
Re
D
C =
Laminar:
Turbulent:
0,2
0, 072
Re
D
C =
2,58
0, 455
(log Re)
D
C =
For 5 x 10
5
< Re < 2 x 10
7

(Velocity profile: one-seventh power law)
For 10
5
< Re < 10
9

(Velocity profile: logarithmic law)
Smooth and Rough Surfaces
Whether the general nature of boundary layer is laminar or
turbulent, the flow in the immediate neighborhood of a solid
surface is always laminar (the laminar sub layer)
The thickness of the laminar sub layer is very small
A surface is said to be:
hydrodynamically smooth if the mechanical imperfections are
small in comparison with o
sub
hydrodynamically rough if the mechanical irregularities are
large with respect to o
sub
Quantitatively for a pipe of internal roughness k
k/o
sub
< 0,25 smooth surface
k/o
sub
> 5 rough surface
0,25 < k/o
sub
< 5 transitory surface

11,84
*
sub
u
v
o =
Boundary Layer Separation
The fluid mass in the layer close to the wall has to do work
against boundary friction by consuming a fraction of its
kinetic energy and in turn, regained from the adjacent fluid
layers through momentum exchange process
The boundary layer can not keep sticking to the solid
surface if it cannot expend energy to overcome the surface
resistance and the separation will occur
Laminar layer is in a weaker position compared to turbulent
layer to withstand the expenditure of kinetic energy,
consequently, a laminar layer tends to separate off the
surface more easily than a turbulent layer
Adverse pressure gradient along the flow tends to
decelerate the flow and results in a rapidly thickening layer
The fluid mass in the layer close to the wall has to do both,
work against friction and work against adverse pressure
gradient so that the layers separate from the surface earlier

On the other hand, favourable pressure gradient resulting in
accelerated flow provides energy to the layer-fluid enabling
it to remain sticking to the solid surface
In a diffuser, the adverse pressure gradient causes the
boundary layer to separate at a section SS whereas in a
nozzle flow, separation is not likely to occur
Flow over curved surfaces
arbitrarily curved surface
aerofoil
from the leading edge up to a point P, the flow is accelerating due to
a favourable pressure gradient
the pressure gradient thereafter becomes adverse to cause the flow
to separate at S, and cause eddy formation and reversal thereafter
It may also be observed that the flow on the lower surface of an
aerofoil does not separate due to the absence of the adversity of
pressure
Separation and Recirculation
The velocity profile over a solid surface exhibits the
following character:
Attached flow, laminar or turbulent, before S, (cu/ cy)
y=0
> 0
At the verge of separation at S, (cu/ cy)
y=0
= 0
Separated flow, after S, (cu/ cy)
y=0
< 0
Flow over sudden expansion
Separation of flow takes place at the corner point S resulting in
eddying motion in the side regions
Control of Separation
Separation, reversal of flow and eddy formation are
undesirable because much of energy is lost in the
It is necessary to control the boundary layer flow and prevent
or delay the phenomenon of separation as far is possible
The retarded boundary layer may either be:
energized by high-energy fluid
be removed by sucking
Control of Separation
Provision of guide-blades Small divergence diffuser
Trip-wire Ring over a Sphere
Mechanism of Transition
Transition from laminar to turbulent flow in shear flows where
moderate velocity gradients exist is explained by the growth
of 'spots' of turbulence in laminar flow through the following
process :
Theory of natural transition by spot formation
(Tollmein and Schlichting)

Boundary Layer Flow

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