Part 1 Topics
The Normal Cell How Cells Respond to Change and Injury The Cellular Environment: Fluids and Electrolytes Acid-Base Balance
CELL THEORY
All Living Things Are Composed of Cells Cells Are the Functional Unit of the Body Continuity of Life: Cells come from other cells
CELL DIVERSITY
Human Body contains 50-106 trillion cells 200 different cell types Range from 2 micrometers to 1 meter in length
The cell is the fundamental unit of the human body. Three main elements:
Cellular Components
Cytoplasm viscous fluid that fills and gives shape to the cell
Organelles
Organelles
NUCLEUS
Cell control center- directs activities Bounded by a double membrane, the nuclear envelope Contains genetic information (DNA) in the form of genes Nucleolus - site of ribosome assembly Multinucleate - many nuclei Anucleate - no nucleus
CYTOPLASM
viscous transparent fluid organelles - little organs Inclusions - chemical substances that may be stored in the cytoplasm
ORGANELLES
Endoplasmic reticulum
rough ER - transport & membrane synthesis smooth ER - lipid synthesis & drug detoxification
Ribosome - synthesize proteins Golgi apparatus - series of flattened membrane sacs that process, sort and modify proteins and lipids for export or cell use
ORGANELLES
Mitochondria - ATP formation Lysosome - contain hydrolytic enzymes that break down molecules, digest bacteria Microtubules / Microfilaments - form part of the cytoskeleton that serve as support structures and assist with cell movement
Cilia -numerous, short, transport substances across the membrane Flagella - often single, used to propel the cell
ORGANELLES
Peroxisomes - contain enzymes that oxidize toxic substances (neutralize free radicals) Centrosomes/centrioles - function in cell division Storage organelles - Vacuoles, Vesicles, may contain:
Cells range from 1200 m Lower limit (0.2 m) determined by space needed for ribosomes, DNA. Upper limit determined by need to transport materials across surface
very small 0.5 - 5 m no organelles, internal membranes rare DNA localized in nucleoid region, NO NUCLEUS growth due to increase in numbers rather than size high surface to volume ratio
Eukaryotic Cells
Essential Chemistry
Ions/Ionic bonds
# of protons (+ charge) and electrons (- charge) become imbalanced. Atom acquires a net charge. A charged atom or group of atoms is called an ion. Oppositely charged atoms are attracted to each other, forming an ionic bond.
Covalent Bonds
Some atoms share electrons forming covalent bonds Shared electrons spend time orbiting both atoms Important elements
Some atoms such as O, N attract electrons strongly Unequal sharing of electrons creates partial charges at ends (poles) of covalent bond Opposite partial charges on the same or separate molecules are attracted to each other forming hydrogen bonds (H-bonds)
Water is a polar molecule. Two ends of molecule have opposite charges. Water molecules stick to each other and to other things.
Surface tension adhesion, capillary action and redwood trees collapsed lungs surfactants cohesion
Water as a solvent
Water can interact with other polar substances, therefore they dissolve well Charged on ions are stabilized by partial charges in water Non- polar molecules do not interact with water.
Hydrophobic interactions
Substances that do not interact with water referred to as hydrophobic hydrophobic molecules are aggregated to minimize disruption of waters H-bonding network.
Major Theme!!
Hydrated Carbon
Carbohydrates have a base formula of (CH2O)n names end with ose, e.g. - pentoses (n=5) Ribose, ribulose; hexoses (n=6) - glucose, fructose Monosaccharide = 1 sugar
Macromolecules
Condensation - Removal of H and OH from two separate molecules forms water and connects the two molecules. Hydrolysis - Water used to split a molecule Can be continued ad infinitum - monomers
polymer
Disaccharides
2 monosaccharides can be linked to form a disaccharide Oligosaccharides contain several different sugars linked in different types of linkages.
Polysaccharides
Sugars (monosaccharides) can be connected to form polysaccharides usually only 1 or 2 types of linkage. Glucose is used to produce glycogen (animals), starch (plants) and cellulose (plants).
Polysaccharides
Cellulose is also a polymer of glucose, but sugars are linked differently, difficult to breakdown.
Fiber in the diet, paper, wood, Extra stomachs in ruminants (cows, sheep) with cellulose degrading bacteria
Starch & Glycogen - branching creates more ends - allows more rapid breakdown to individual sugars
Nucleotides (nts)
Sugar - ribose vs. deoxyribose Base - A,C,G and T (DNA) or U (RNA) Phosphates - 1 (mono), 2 (di) or 3 (tri) Important nts
ATP - energy GTP - regulates protein activity NAD, NADP carry electrons
Nucleic Acids
Amino acids are connected together to form a chain linked by peptide bonds. Linkage by peptide bonds maintains amino and carboxyl termini, directionality 20 different amino acids have R groups or side chains with different chemical properties.
Phospholipid structure
Lipid Bilayers
Hydrophilic portion of phospholipid on surface, exposed to water. Hydrophobic portion in central region, away from water.
Triglycerides = Fats/Oils
Saturated
Unsaturated
maximum number of hydrogens no double bonds more energy storage (more calories) less fluid because straight butter, lard, fat
less than maximum number of hydrogens double bonds present less energy storage more fluid because bent vegetable oils
Other Lipids
Good cholesterol
Bad cholesterol
bound to high density lipoprotein (HDL) transports cholesterol to liver blocks synthesis of more cholesterol
bound to low density lipoprotein (LDL) transports cholesterol to cells of the body does not prevent synthesis of more cholesterol by liver
Other lipids
can be used to fry foods without adding calories negative nutritional value - prevents absorption of many fat soluble vitamins that help prevent cancer diarrhea oily anal leakage
Disadvantages
Cell Function
All human cells have the same general structure and genetic material. Differentiation, or maturation, causes cells to become specialized. There are seven major functions of cells.
Tissues
Tissue refers to a group of cells that perform a similar function. Four basic types of tissue
TISSUE ORGANIZATION
Histology - is the study of tissues
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
Location
sheets or layers lining body tubes, cavities, or covering body surfaces Form many glands
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
Form sheets, layers Cells fit together tightly One edge attached to basement membrane No blood supply Regenerate quickly Many are secretory Supported by connective tissue
FUNCTIONS
Number of layers
simple epithelium stratified epithelium pseudostratified epithelium squamous (flat) cuboidal ( cubed) columnar ( tall) transitional (varies)
Shape of cells
endocrine (ductless) - secrete hormones into blood exocrine- secrete through ducts to specific locations
unicellular - goblet cells multicellular
modes of secretion apocrine - apex pinches off holocrine - accumulate until rupture merocrine -most common;secrete by exocytosis
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Most abundant and widespread tissue found in the body
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
Many types with great diversity Very good blood supply Cells usually spaced apart from each other Intercellular material (matrix) separating cells No free surface Derived from mesenchyme Consist of ground substance, fibers, cells
Physical protection Support Binding Absorb shock Insulation Stores energy Blood production Immunity
Types of Fibers
contains collagen protein contains elastin protein contains collagen & glycoprotein
Irregular dense
Elastic connective
Cartilage
ends of long bone, nose tip, connects ribs to sternum external ear
Elastic cartilage
Fibrocartilage
Osseous Tissue
Types of Cells
osteocytes osteoblasts osteoclasts Cancellous (Spongy) Bone - trabeculae Compact Bone - Haversian Canal System
Types of Bone
MUSCLE TISSUE
Contractile tissue Responsible for movement
Spindle shaped cells with single nucleus per cell No striations Located in blood vessels, walls of hollow organs, and the gastrointestinal tract
Branched cells with striated fibers Intercalated discs Only a single nucleus per cell Only found in the heart
NERVE TISSUE
Characterized by the ability to conduct electrical signals
Nervous Tissue
Located in the brain and spinal cord (CNS) and in the nerves (PNS) Sensitive to changes in the internal and external environment Conducts nerve impulses to other neurons/body parts
NERVE TISSUE
MEMBRANES
Thin sheet or layer of tissue that covers a structure or lines a cavity
Epithelial Membranes
Synovial Membrane
An organ is a group of tissues functioning together. A group of organs working together is an organ system. The sum of all cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems makes up an organism.
Organ Systems
System Integration
Homeostasis is the bodys natural tendency to keep the internal environment and metabolism steady and normal.
System Integration
Nervous system
Endocrine system
Nervous system response is fast Endocrine response is longer lasting Responses are stimulated by pathological alterations
System Integration
Interact with, and then respond to, the chemical signals and other stimuli
System Integration
Endocrine Glands
Secrete hormones directly into the circulatory system Secrete hormones directly onto surface Endocrine and exocrine function
Exocrine Glands
Intercellular Communication
Endocrine signaling
Hormones distributed throughout the body Secretion of chemical mediators by certain cells that act only upon nearby cells Cells secrete substances that act upon themselves Cells secrete neurotransmitters that transmit signals across synapses
Paracrine signaling
Autocrine signaling
Synaptic signaling
System Integration
Stressors on a body system are inputs. A system receiving input creates feedback. A negative feedback loop exists when body mechanisms work to reverse the input. Biological systems generally employ negative feedback loops to maintain stability.
Pathophysiology
The physiology of disordered function Our understanding is constantly expanding During your career you will encounter patient conditions or diseases that were not addressed in your initial paramedic education.
Cell Reproduction
Human cells (except sex cells) reproduce by mitosis Most undergo division throughout the life of the individual
Epithelial cells Liver cells Bone marrow cells Nerve cells Skeletal muscle cells
Copyright 2006, 2001, 1994 by Mosby, Inc. All rights reserved.
CELL DIVISION
Process by which a cell reproduces itself Involves nuclear division - mitosis, meiosis Involves cytoplasmic division cytokinesis Mitosis - somatic cell division in which the cell retains the same number of chromosomes Meiosis - reductional division in which the chromosome number is reduced
CELL CYCLE
Growth Phase 1 - synthesis of lipids, proteins and carbohydrates S Phase - DNA synthesis Growth Phase 2 - formation of spindle fibers for cell division, centrioles divide Mitosis / Meiosis INTERPHASE
PROPHASE
Chromatin condenses into chromosomes Spindle Fibers appear Nuclear membrane disappears Nucleolus disappears Centrioles move to opposite poles Chromosomes begins to migrate toward equator
METAPHASE / ANAPHASE
Chromosomes line up along equator centromere of each pair attached to a spindle fiber
Opposite of Prophase Chromosomes elongate forming indistinct chromatin Nuclear membrane reappears Nuclear reorganization occurs Two new daughter cells formed
DNA - forms genetic code RNA - functions in the process of protein synthesis
Double stranded helix; nucleus Contains: 5 carbon sugar, phosphate group, nitrogenous base Nitrogenous bases
DNA RELICATION
DNA makes an exact duplicate of itself DNA strands separate into separate strands and each one is used as a template for a new strand of nucleotides Two double- helix molecules are formed, each contains an original strand and a newly synthesized strand
Single stranded Uracil substitutes for thymine consists of 5 carbon sugar ribose, phosphate group, nitrogenous base Bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine, uracil RNA types: mRNA, tRNA, rRNA
mRNA is synthesized using a DNA molecule as a template mRNA carries MESSAGE out of the nucleus to the ribsome in the cytoplasm
Genetic code is translated forming a specific sequence of amino acids mRNA attaches to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm tRNA molecules bring specific A.A. to the ribosome for placement in the dictated sequence Ribosome bonds amino acids together to form proteins / polypeptides Protein is released
Lipid bilayer closes to form a sphere (vesicle) Inside of vesicle is a separate compartment Bilayer is semipermeable
Small, uncharged molecules pass through Large or charged molecules cannot pass through hydrophobic part of bilayer
Proteins are incredibly diverse 20(# of amino acids) possible combinations (3,200,000 combinations for a 5 aa protein). Different amino acids have different chemical properties, causing polypeptide chain to fold up on itself.
Hydrophobic amino acids are buried in the center Hydrophilic are on the surface Ionic and H-bonds can form between amino acids
Enzymes are proteins that catalyze (stimulate/ accelerate) chemical reactions Names end in -ase Examples
DNA polymerase makes DNA ATPase breaks down or produces ATP Helicase unwinds the DNA double helix
Metabolic pathway is a series of reactions that produces (anabolic) or breaks down (catabolic) a molecule in the cell
What is information?
Representation of knowledge, thoughts; series of symbols that have meaning. Digital 1s and 0s Alphanumeric letters and numbers Graphic illustration Genetic chemical order of bases (ACGTU) in a nucleic acid tells a cell how and when to make specific proteins which then perform some function for the cell.
Storage of Information
hemoglobin gene contains the information on the order of amino acids that are linked together to make hemoglobin
DNA
Nucleic Acids
DNA structure
Two strands of DNA are said to be complementary Strands are antiparallel, have 5 phosphate & 3 OH 5-GCTAGGTAGTCCT-3 3-CGATCCATCAGGA-5
Information Flow within Organisms What Information? Replication: DNA DNA exact copy - photocopy Transcription: DNA RNA still a sequence of nucleotides writing notes from screen - still same letters, different form (cursive) Translation: RNA protein nucleotide seq. amino acid seq. english russian
Transcription
Messenger RNA (mRNA) functions as a working copy of the information on DNA. RNA polymerase uses 1 strand of DNA as a template to make mRNA. Starting position determined by RNA polymerase binding to PROMOTER RNA polymerase moves down DNA and connects nucleotides to make RNA bases - A,C,G in both RNA and DNA, T in DNA, U in RNA
Transcription
After RNA is made, the 2 DNA strands come back together, RNA molecule is released in eukaryotes - each RNA contains the info from 1 gene produces 1 protein in prokaryotes - RNAs may contain info from multiple gene produce multiple proteins
RNA processing
Once transcription does occur, RNA produced referred to as primary transcript In Eukaryotes, RNA is processed to form mRNA before export from nucleus to cytoplasm
RNA splicing
Eukaryotic genes are interrupted by DNA sequences called introns or intervening sequences, parts that will be used to make protein are exons. Introns are cut from primary RNA transcript, exons are spliced together.
RNA Processing
Poly-A tail added to 3 end to enhance stability of mRNA 7-methyl-guanine cap added to 5 end required for export from nucleus
What is a code? Morse Code The genetic code translates nucleotide sequence into amino acid sequence
codon - sequence of 3 nucleotides that specifies 1 amino acid. AUG=start codon UAA, UGA, UAG are stop codons.
Genetic code is degenerate - 64 possible combinations, but only 20 amino acids. Most amino acids are encoded by multiple codons
The Genetic Code is Universal - same for all organisms
AUG GGA UCC ACA UUU GCA UGA Met Gly Ser Thr Phe Ala Stop A UGG GAU CCA CAU UUG CAU GA Trp Asp Pro His Leu His AU GGG AUC CAC AUU UGC AUG A Gly Ile His Ile Cys Met
Ribosomes
Translation occurs on ribosomes Ribosomes are ribonucleoproteins (RNA and protein components)
Small subunit contains 16S rRNA and 33 proteins Large subunit contains 23S rRNA, 5S rRNA and 45 proteins
Functional RNAs
mRNA function is information transfer info is used to make protein Some RNAs are not translated tRNA, rRNA Intramolecular base pairing causes RNA to fold into a specific shape (like a protein) Paired regions twist to form helix
tRNA structure
Transfer RNA (tRNAs) are the adaptors that associate RNA codons with amino acids
anticodon at one end base pairs with codons on mRNA. amino acid at other end attached by amino acyltRNA synthetases Each amino acid has 1-2 tRNAs
Translation
1. 2. 3. 4.
Ribosomes bind mRNA, position start codon. Initiator tRNA base pairs with AUG codon. tRNA that base pairs with next codon is lined up. Two amino acids are connected.
Translation
4. 5. 6. 7.
Two amino acids are connected. Ribosome moves down mRNA to next codon. New tRNA pairs with next codon. Return to step 4
Translation
When ribosome reaches a stop codon - no tRNAs can pair with it. Polypeptide is released, folds into a functional protein. See animation
DNA is transcribed to mRNA. Ribosome binds mRNA. tRNAs with amino acids pair up with codons on mRNA. Amino acids connected to produce protein
Questions?
Cellular Adaptation
Cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems can adapt to both normal and injurious conditions. Adaptation results in alteration of structure and function. Many of these cellular adaptations are successful.
Atrophy
Decreased size resulting from a decreased workload An increase in cell size resulting from an increased workload
Hypertrophy
Hyperplasia
Metaplasia
Replacement of one type of cell by another type of cell that is not normal for that tissue A change in cell size, shape, or appearance caused by an external stressor
Dysplasia
Cellular Injury
Cellular Injury
Hypoxic Injury
Usually a deficit in the respiratory or cardiovascular system Blockage or reduction of blood flow to a cell may result in ischemia.
Results in anaerobic metabolism Cell and some of its organelles then begin to swell
Cellular Injury
Chemical Injury
Heavy metals, carbon monoxide, ethanol, drugs, and insecticides are examples Disruption of the cellular membrane Alteration of coagulation Death of the cell
Injuries include:
Cellular Injury
Infectious Injury
Caused by bacteria, viruses, prions, fungi, and parasites Majority are harmless
Degree of damage depends on the pathogens numbers, its virulence, and the bodys ability to contain or destroy it
Cellular Injury
Immunologic/Inflammatory Injury
Protective responses of the body can cause cell injury and even death. Hypersensitivity Anaphylaxis An immune response may harm healthy cells as well as damaged cells.
Cellular Injury
Extreme variances in temperature Atmospheric pressure changes Exposure to ionizing radiation Illumination Noise Mechanical stresses
Cellular Injury
Excessive intake of saturated fats and cholesterol Excessive carbohydrate (glucose) intake Insufficient intake of nutrients
Cellular Injury
Some cellular dysfunctions are caused by genetic predisposition. This can involve alterations to the nucleus or the cell membrane, the shape of the cell, the receptors on the cell membrane, or the transport mechanisms that carry substances across the cell membrane. The interaction of genes and environmental factors determine that persons development.
When cells are injured metabolism is changed, causing substances to infiltrate or accumulate to an abnormal degree in cells and tissues. The most commonly seen effects of cell injury and accumulation are cellular swelling and fatty change.
Cellular Swelling
Results from a permeable or damaged cellular membrane Caused by an inability to maintain stable intraand extra-cellular fluid and electrolyte levels Lipids invade site of injury Ominous sign of impending cellular destruction
Fatty Change
Fatigue and malaise Altered appetite Fever Increased heart rate associated with fever Pain
Cellular Death
Apoptosis
The bodys way of ridding itself of destroyed or nonfunctional cells Result of both normal and pathological tissue changes In apoptosis, cells shrink Apoptosis has specificity
Cellular Death
Necrosis
Gangrenous necrosis