Semiconductor Devices

A brief review
Dr. K. Fobelets
Purpose of the course
Study bipolar devices in more detail
Diodes and BJTs
Closer to reality: recombination
What causes the delays in these devices when
switching?
The most frequently used sentence in
this course will be:
Excess minority carrier
concentration
Structure
1. Lectures : 10 hrs
Basic principles based on Q&A session
Recombination and how does it impact the
characteristics
LONG pn diode correct and approximated
solutions
LONG BJT
Switching of pn diodes and BJTs
2. Classes: solving past exam papers
Review
Electrons and holes
Minority and majority carriers
Energy band diagram
Intrinsic Si
Si Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si
Movement: kT
Si Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si
Thermal energy: kT
Si Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si
Si
Covalent bond
Free charged carriers in Si
Extrinsic Si
Si B Si Si
Si Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si
N
A
Extrinsic Si
Si As Si Si
Si Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si
N
D
Obtained by doping
B
As
Extrinsic Si
p-type n-type
In semiconductors two types of free charged carriers exist: electrons and holes.

Q1: What are holes?
a) Spherical voids in a semiconductor
b) A positively charged Si atom that has lost its electron
c) A positively charged particle that is the result of quantum mechanics
Si
Si
Si Si
Si
+
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
C
The two charged particles describe together the conduction in semiconductors.
Electron e
-
with charge q=-e
and mass m
n
= m
0
m*
n

Hole h
+
with charge q=+e
and mass m
p
= m
0
m*
p
Intrinsic silicon (Si) has a small number of both free electrons and holes such that n
i
=p
i
.
In order to increase the free carrier concentration, the semiconductor can be doped. With
donors N
D
more electrons are created, with acceptors N
A
more holes are generated.

Q2: When intrinsic Si is doped with donor atoms, which of the following statements is
correct?
a) n = p = n
i
= p
i
b) n > n
i
& p < n
i
c) n > p > n
i
d) p > n > n
i
n: electron concentration
p: hole concentration
n
i
: intrinsic electron concentration
p
i
: intrinsic hole concentration
B
n > n
i
& p < n
i
in an n-type semiconductor.
n-type semiconductor
n = N
D

p = n
i
2
/N
D
p-type semiconductor
n = n
i
2
/N
A

p = N
A By heart
The concept of majority carrier and minority carrier is important in semiconductor devices.
Majority carrier is the carrier type in a doped semiconductor with the highest
concentration. Minority carrier is the carrier type with the lowest concentration.

Q3: True or False?
The holes are the majority carriers in a p-type semiconductor (doped with acceptor atoms
N
A
).
TRUE
p-type semiconductor
p
p
hole
concentration
p-type
semiconductor
n
p
electron
concentration
p-type
semiconductor
>
n-type semiconductor
n
n
electron
concentration
n-type
semiconductor
n
p
hole
concentration
n-type
semiconductor
>
MAJORITY CARRIERS MINORITY CARRIERS
Drift and diffusion
Two types of carrier movement
As a result of an electric field DRIFT
As a result of a carrier gradient DIFFUSION
Drift of carriers under influence of
an electric field: E
E
+
-
E
+
-
E q J
q J
=
=
carriers of number
v carriers of number
Diffusion of carriers due to a carrier
gradient
carriers of number D
gradient ion concentrat constant diffusion
dx
d
q J
q J
=
=
x
The purpose of semiconducting devices is to generate a current/voltage in response to an
applied voltage/current. Two different types of current can exist in a semiconductor: drift
and diffusion current. The expression of the total current that can flow in a semiconductor
is given by the drift-diffusion equation:





Q4: Which statement is true?
a) Term (1) is drift current and (2) diffusion current
b) Term (2) is drift current and (1) diffusion current
c) Only term (1) can exist in a semiconductor
d) Only term (2) can exist in a semiconductor
dx
x dp
eD x E x p e x J
dx
x dn
eD x E x n e x J
p p p
n n n
) (
) ( ) ( ) (
) (
) ( ) ( ) (
=
+ =

(1) (2)
A
Drift current is proportional to the carrier concentration and the electric field
Diffusion current is proportional to the carrier gradient.
E(x) J
n
drift

J
p
drift

n(x)
J
n
diff

p(x) J
p
diff

Motion of free charged carriers in a semiconductor.

Q5: If a p-type semiconductor at room temperature is conducting carriers due to drift,
which of the following motion paths would be followed by the holes?
a)
(b)
c)
(d)
E
+
- E
+
-
E
+ -
E
+ -
B
When carriers move in a semiconductor they are scattered along the
way. This means that they will be accelerated by the electric field (in
this case) and then interact with atoms, impurities, other carriers
that makes them lose some of their kinetic energy = scattering.
Therefore the carriers will travel with an average velocity in
amplitude and direction.
m
e
E v
t

=
=
Q6: Solve diffusion processes
p+ n p
1. Draw arrows indicating the direction of diffusion of carriers.
2. Identify the type of carriers that is diffusing.
Solution
p+ n p
Holes
Electrons
p+ n p
1. Because hole diffusion and electron diffusion cancel each other.
2. Because an internal electric field is built up across each junction
causing drift of holes/electrons that cancel the diffusion of
.holes/electrons.
3. Because holes and electrons diffuse automatically back to where they
came from.
Q7: Why is there no net current while diffusion is happening?
p+ n p
Holes
Electrons
2. Because an internal electric field is built up across each junction
causing drift of holes/electrons that cancel the diffusion of
.holes/electrons.

Holes
Electrons
diffusion drift
+
-
E
+
-
E
p-Si
Si B Si Si
Si Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si
N
A
n-Si
Si As Si Si
Si Si Si Si
As Si Si Si
N
D
Depletion
Si
B
As
Si
Si
B
C
a
p
a
c
i
t
i
v
e

e
f
f
e
c
t

E
+
-
-
-
B
-
: boron atom ionised
Si
Si
Si
C
a
p
a
c
i
t
i
v
e

e
f
f
e
c
t

E
-
+
As
+
: arsenic atom ionised
+
+
Q8: True - False
The position of the Fermi level E
F
determines the type of the
semiconductor.
E
c
E
v
E
F
Q9: Multiple choice
1. This is the energy band diagram of an n-type semiconductor.
2. This is the energy band diagram of a p-type semiconductor.
3. This is the energy band diagram of an intrinsic semiconductor.
E
c
E
v
E
F
Bottom of conduction band
E
c
Top of valence band
E
v
E
i
Intrinsic level. Is the position of the Fermi level
E
F
when the semiconductor is intrinsic.
E
G
Bandgap. No energy levels in this energy region.
Position of Fermi level is determined by the doping type and density
For n-type Si:
( )
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
= = |
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
D
C
F c
D
C C F c
F c
C
N
N
kT E E
N
N
n
N
kT
E E
kT
E E
N n
ln
exp
exp
E
F
Devices
A combination of n and p type
semiconductors plus ohmic contacts to
apply the external voltages/currents makes
devices
When combining a-similar materials
diffusion will occur and as a result an
internal electric field will be built up to an
amount that opposes diffusion current.
Energy band diagram
e.g.
p-Si n-Si
p-Si n-Si p-Si

It is possible to start from the knowledge on
workfunctions, | and the energy reference:
the vacuum level, E
vac
. The workfunction is
dependent on the doping concentration!
E
vac
n-Si
e|
n-Si
E
F
p-Si
e|
p-Si
E
F
E
vac
p-Si
e|
p-Si
E
F
E
vac
n-Si
e|
n-Si
E
F
E
vac
p-Si
E
F
E
F
Depleted region on both sides
E
c
E
v
E
c
E
v
e|
p-Si
E
vac
n-Si
e|
n-Si
E
vac
( )
Si n Si p
e V e

= | |
0
Diffusion and drift can occur at the
same time.
E
Both also always occur across junctions
A charge packet
A look at the short pn-diode
PN diode I
V
p n
p n
p n
E
Short PN diode
I
V
p n
p n
p n
E
DIFFUSION
Short PN diode
I
V
p n
p n
p n
E
DIFFUSION
Short PN diode
I
V
p n
p n
p n
E
Linear variation of minority carrier concentration
How do we find the current?
DIFFUSION
distance
M
i
n
o
r
i
t
y

c
a
r
r
i
e
r

c
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

Apply diffusion current formula to the minority carrier variation
Short PN diode
I
V
p n
p n
E
p n
Only few carriers can contribute to the current
Contents of course this year
Long pn diode
Introducing the concept of recombination of carriers.
Switching of the pn diode, where does the delay come
from?

Bipolar junction transistor
Internal functioning
Switching delays
p n
Long
But what happens in a long pn diode?
p n
L
n
L
p
Minority carrier diffusion length
Short
In long semiconductors recombination of
the minority carriers will occur whilst
diffusing
Loss of both carrier type, but felt most in excess
minority carriers. Remember: the amount of majority carriers is
much larger than the excess.
Excess holes, in an n-type semiconductor will recombine
with the large amount of available electrons.
p o
In long semiconductors recombination of
the minority carriers will occur whilst
diffusing
Diffusing minority
carriers (e.g. holes)
recombine with majority
carriers (electrons) within
a diffusion length L
p I
n
j
e
c
t
i
o
n

o
f

c
a
r
r
i
e
r
s

x
Loss of both carrier type, but felt most in excess
minority carriers. Remember: the amount of majority carriers is
much larger than the excess.
L
p
Excess holes, in an n-type semiconductor will recombine
with the large amount of available electrons.
p o
Generation-recombination
Generation of carriers and recombination is
continuously happening at the same time
such that the equilibrium carrier
concentrations are maintained.

Charge neutral
R=G
Recombination - generation
In case there is an excess carrier
concentration then the recombination rate R
of the excess, will be larger than its
generation rate, G: R>G
When there is a shortage, then G > R
Recombination - generation
Simple model: Recombination/generation rate is proportional
to excess carrier concentration.
Thus no net recombination/generation takes place if the
carrier density equals the thermal equilibrium value.
Recombination of e
-
in p-type
semiconductor
p
n
p
n n
p p p
n
p
n
p p
n n n
p
p p
G R U
n n n
G R U
t
o
t
t
o
t
=

= =
=

= =
0
0
Recombination of h
+
in n-type
semiconductor
Diffusion, drift and recombination of
carriers
What is the consequence of this recombination on the
characteristics of the pn diode with neutral regions
larger than the diffusion lengths of the minority
carriers?
In the pn diode the carrier gradient
determines the current thus we have
to find the function p(x) of the
minority carrier concentration.
Note, reasoning done for p(x). For n(x) analogous approach.
Mathematical description of diffusion
and recombination
x
x x+Ax
J
p
(x)
J
p
(x+Ax)
A
p
p p
x x x
p
x
x x J x J
q t
p
t
o

A
A +
=
c
c
A +
) ( ) (
1
Rate of hole
variation
Variation of hole
concentration in
Ax x A/s
Recombination
rate
=
+
Mathematical description of diffusion
and recombination
p
p
p
x
J
q t
p
t
o o

c
c

=
c
c 1
= bulk defined + excess concentration
J
p
: total current = drift + diffusion
Neglect drift current (no electric field applied)
p
p p
x x x
p
x
x x J x J
q t
p
t
o

A
A +
=
c
c
A +
) ( ) (
1
p
p
p
x
J
q t
t x p
x
t
o

c
c

=
c
c
A
1 ) , (
: 0
p p p o + =
0
D
i
n
N
n
p p
2
0
0
= =
with
Mathematical description of diffusion
and recombination
p
p
p
p
p
p
p
x
p
D
t
p
p p p
p
x
p
D
p
x
J
q t
p
t
o o o
o
t
o
t
o o

c
c
=
c
c
+ =

c
c
=
c
c

=
c
c
2
2
0
2
2
1
= bulk defined+ excess concentration
dx
x dp
eD x J
p p
) (
) ( =
D
i
n
N
n
p p
2
0
0
= =
with
Solve equation in steady state
2 2
2
0
p p p
L
p
D
p
x
p
t
p
o
t
o o
o
= =
c
c
=
c
c
Diffusion length
Boundary conditions:
p p x
p X x
n
A = =
= =
o
o
0
0
General solution of 2
nd
order differential equation:
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
2 1
sinh ) ( C
L
x
C x p
p
o
x
op
X
n
0
Ap
contact
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|

A
=
p
n
p
n
L
X x
L
X
p
x p sinh
sinh
) ( o
Too complicated
Short approximation Long approximation
X
n
<< L
p
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|

A
=
p
n
p
n
L
X x
L
X
p
x p sinh
sinh
) ( o
X
n
>> L
p
LINEAR
EXPONENTIAL
Short semiconductor
X
n
L
p
carriers do not have time to recombine (t=) !
Taking linear approximation.
p
n
(x)
x
0
p
n0
Ap
o
p
n
(
x
)

X
n
NO recombination : variation
of the excess carrier
concentration linear
p
n
(x)= p
n0
+ Ap (1x/X
n
)
op
n
(x)
Contact imposes
op
n
(X
n
)=0
p
n
Diffusion and recombination
X
n
>> L
p
carriers do have time to recombine (t<) !
Taking exponential approximations
When recombination occurs
and X
n
>> L
p
variation of the
excess carrier concentration is
exponential
p
n
(x)
x
0
p
n0
Ap
o
p
n
(
x
)

p
n
(x)=p
n0
+

p
n
L
p
Contact imposes
op
n
(X
n
)=0
X
n
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|

A
p
n
p
p
n
L
X
L
x
L
X
p
exp exp
exp 1
op
n
(x)
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|

A
p
n
p
p
n
L
X
L
x
L
X
p
exp exp
exp 1
op
n
(x)=
op
n
still too complex for quick
calculations
Take really extreme case
X
n
>>> L
p
or X
n

|
|
.
|

\
|
A
p
L
x
pexp
Note: I and Q of both expressions of for the same

I for same as for linear approximation when X
n
=L
p
op
n
(x)
X
n

op
n
(x)=
|
|
.
|

\
|
A
p
L
x
pexp
Diffusion and recombination
When recombination occurs
and X
n
variation of the
excess carrier concentration is
exponential
p
n
(x)
x
0
p
n0
Ap
o
p
n
(
x
)

p
n
(x)=p
n0
+Ap e
-x/Lp
p
n
L
p
X
n
>>> L
p
carriers do have time to recombine (t<) !
Taking exponential approximations
Imposes op
n
(X
n
)=0

SHORT LONG
approximation
Short
Boundary of short
Long
Intermediate
Correct solution
Exponential solution
Linear solution
op
n
(x)
op
n
(x)
op
n
(x)
op
n
(x)
L
p
=200 nm, X
n
=400nm
L
p
=200 nm, X
n
=20nm
L
p
=X
n
=200nm
L
p
=200 nm, X
n
=1000nm
x
x
x
x
Calculation of currents in pn diode with
neutral regions larger than the diffusion
length, using the long semiconductor
approximation

Exponential variation of the excess minority
carrier concentration.
Carrier injections: forward bias
Carrier injection across
junction
-w
p
w
n 0
p n
e
-
diff
h
+
diff
Creates minority carrier
concentration gradients
n
p
(-x)
n
p

p
n
(x)
p
n

n
p0
=n
i
2
/N
A
& p
p
=N
A

p
n0
= n
i
2
/N
D
& n
n
=N
D
p
n0

x
n
p0

-x
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
T
n n
T
p p
V
V
p p
V
V
n n
exp '
exp '
0
0
Carrier injections: reverse bias
Minority carriers are swept
across junction V<0
-w
p
w
n 0
p n
e
-
drift
h
+
drift
Small amount of minority
carriers small current
p
n0

x
n
p0

-x
n
p
(-x)
n
p

p
n
(x)
p
n

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
T
n n
T
p p
V
V
p p
V
V
n n
exp ' '
exp ' '
0
0
Thus
Ap
n
= p
n0
(e
eV/kT
-1)
-w
p
w
n 0
p n
e
-
diff
h
+
diff
n
p
(-x)
n
p

p
n
(x)
p
n

p
n0

x
n
p0

-x
An
p
= n
p0
(e
eV/kT
-1)
An
p
Ap
n
n
L
x
p p
e n x n
) (
) (

A = o
p
L
x
n n
e p x p
) (
) (

A = o
Two methods to calculate current
x
-w
p
w
n
0
I
on
p

op
n

x
-x
An
p
Ap
n
Slope
1. Gradient excess carrier concentration
2. Re-supply of recombined excess charge
0
0
Q
n
Q
p
1. Excess carrier concentration gradient
-w
p
w
n
on
p
op
n

x
-x
An
p
Ap
n
Slope
e
-
I
n
= e A D
n
don
p
/dx
= max @ x=0
h
+
I
p
= -e A D
p
dop
n
/dx
= max @ x=0
Maximum diffusion currents at the edges of the transition region
0
0
1. Excess carrier concentration gradient
e
-
h
+
Fill in expression for excess carrier concentration
( )
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|
=

|
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|
=

|
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|
=
=


1 exp
1 exp
1 exp ) (
0
0
0
max
0
) (
max
) (
kT
eV
L
D eAn
I
dx
e
kT
eV
dn
eAD I
e
kT
eV
n x n
n
n p
diff n
x
L
x
p
n diff n
L
x
p p
n
n
o
( )
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|
=

|
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|
=

|
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|
=
=

1 exp
1 exp
1 exp ) (
0
0
0
max
0
) (
max
) (
kT
eV
L
D eAp
I
dx
e
kT
eV
dp
eAD I
e
kT
eV
p x p
p
p n
diff p
x
L
x
n
p diff p
L
x
n n
p
p
o
I
n
I
p
Changing gradient!

Changing diffusion current density
p n
I
tot

I
p

I
n

I
tot
=I
n
+ I
p

( )
( ) ( )
x
diff n tot
x
drift p
L
x
n
n p
x
diff n
I I I
e
kT
eV
L
D eAn
I
n
=

|
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|
=
) (
1 exp
0
I
n

I
p

( )
( ) ( )
x
diff p tot
x
drift n
L
x
p
p n
x
diff p
I I I
e
kT
eV
L
D eAp
I
p
=

|
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|
=
) (
1 exp
0
x
-w
p
w
n
0
I
n
p
p
n

x
n
p0

-x
An
p
Ap
n
p
n0
I
n
I
p
on
p
= An
p
e
-(-x)/L
n
op
n
= Ap
n
e
-(x)/L
p
Q
n
Q
p
0
0
2. Re-supply of recombined excess carriers
Excess carrier charge Q recombines every t seconds (carrier life time).
For steady state Q has to be re-supplied every t seconds current
-w
p
w
n
0
on
p
op
n

x
n
p0

-x
An
p
Ap
n
p
n0
I
n
Q
n
= -e A
-
0
on
p
dx
I
n
= Q
n
/t
n
= e A L
n
An
p
/t
n

I
p
Q
p
= e A
0

op
n
dx
I
p
= Q
p
/t
p
= e A L
p
Ap
n
/t
p

Charge minority carrier life time ratio
on
p
= An
p
e
-(-x)/L
n
op
n
= Ap
n
e
-(x)/L
p
Q
n
Q
p
0
0
2. Re-supply of recombined excess carriers
Charge = area under excess carrier concentration: integrate
- and + are the contacts: excess charge = 0!
Total current
I = I
p
(0) + I
n
(0) = e A (D
p
p
n0
/L
p
+ D
n
n
p0
/L
n
)(e
eV/kT
-1)

I = I
0
(e
eV/kT
-1)
With I
0
= e A (D
p
p
n0
/L
p
+ D
n
n
p0
/L
n
)
Reverse bias current
Same equation as short diode with
length exactly equal to the
minority carrier diffusion lengths
SHORT LONG
approximation error on current calculation:
ratio of currents
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
0 1 2 3 4 5
X
n
/L
p
I
r
e
a
l
/
I
a
p
p
r
o
x
Ireal/Iexp
Ireal/Ilin
Error on linear and
exponential approximation
same when X
n
=L
p
Non-idealities in the pn diodes
Log(I)
V
a)
b)
c)
ideal
real
(a) Low voltage: low injection of carriers
V
Log(I)
V
a)
ideal
real
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
1
nkT
eV
s tot
e I I
(c) High voltage: high injection of carriers
n
p
p
p

p
n
n
n

Log(I)
V
c)
ideal
real
a) n=2
b) n=1
c) n=2
(d) Higher currents
Log(I)
d)
ideal
real
V
Current determined by resistance
Switching of p-n diodes
When a p-n diode is forward biased, excess carrier
concentrations exists at both sides of the depletion region
edge.
To switch the diode from forward to off or reverse bias,
this excess carrier concentration needs to be removed.
The transients resulting from the time it takes to remove
the excess carriers will lead to the equivalent capacitance.
-w
p
w
n
0
p n
n
p

p
n

Switching off
on
off
i
t
0
-w
p
w
n 0
p n
n
p

p
n

e
-
h
+
-w
p
w
n 0
p n
Steady state snap shots
How do we go from this:
op
x
Ap
n
p
no
Ap
n
To this?
Off: NO current flows!!!
Excess carrier concentration
+p
no
Variation of the excess carrier concentration
as a function of time.
op(x,t)
p
p
p
p
p
p
p
contact
p
p
contact
p
contact
p
contact
t Q
I
dt
t dQ
t Q
J
e
eA
J
e
eA
dt
t dQ
dx
p
eA dx
x
J
e
eA
dx
t
t x p
eA
t
t
t
o o
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
) , (
0
0 0 0
=
+ =

c
c
=
c
c
} } }
Relationship for charge Q
p
p
p
p
x
J
q t
p
t
o o

c
c

=
c
c 1
Transient during switching off
i(t)= I + dQ/dt = Q/t + dQ/dt
Excess charge due to charge injection at any instance of time
Average lifetime of minority carriers
Recombination term
Charge depletion term (or buildup)
Since no current in off, charge has to disappear by
recombination!
For switch from on to off:

At t<0 I
on
=I
on
(V
on
)
At t0 I
off
= 0 (V
off
= 0)
And at t=-0 Q(0)=I
on
t
At t Q()=0
Q(t)=I
on
te
-t/t
t > 0
0 = Q/t + dQ/dt
Transient during switching off
variation of the excess carrier concentration as a function of time
t=0
gradient i0
op
x
Variation in time
Ap
n
i=0gradient=0
A voltage, v
d
will exists across the diode as long as charge remains
Q
p
(t)=eAop(x,t)dx=I
p
t
p
e
-t/t
p
op(x,t)=Ap(v
d
(t)) e
-x/L
p
Revision
When a pn diode switches, the excess minority
carrier concentration needs to change. The removal
of the excess minority carrier concentration causes
the delay in the pn diode.
The variation of the excess carrier concentration as
a function of time given by:
dt
t dQ t Q
t i
p
p
p
p
) ( ) (
) ( + =
t
ON-OFF (open circuit)
take: p
+
n I
tot
I
p
dt
t dQ t Q
t i
p
p
p
p
) ( ) (
) ( + =
t
p
+
n
I
p
t=0
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
+ =
= =
= = = <

p
p ON p
p
p
p
p
p
p
ON p
t
I t Q
dt
t dQ t Q
i t
Q
R
V
I i t
t
t
t
t
exp ) (
) ( ) (
0
0 ) 0 ( ; 0 @
) 0 (
) 0 ( ; 0 @
v
d
R
V
OFF (open circuit) ON
take: p
+
n I
tot
I
p
dt
t dQ t Q
t i
p
p
p
p
) ( ) (
) ( + =
t
p
+
n
I
p
t=0
v
d
( )
( ) ( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
=
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
=
=

+
=
+ =
= = =
= = <
+ +

p
ON p
p
ON p ON p p
p ON p
ON p p
p
ON p ON p p
p
t
ON p p
p ON p p
p
p
p ON p p
p
p
p
ON
ON p
p p
t
I
t
I I t Q
t
I
I t Q
t
I I t Q
t
I t Q
dt
I t Q
t dQ
t Q I
dt
t dQ
dt
t dQ t Q
I
R
V
I i t
Q i t
t
t
t
t t
t t
t
t
t t
t
t
t t
t
t
t
exp 1 exp ) (
) (
ln
ln ) ( ln
) ( ln
) (
) (
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
) 0 ( ; 0 @
0 ) 0 ( ; 0 ) 0 ( ; 0 @
0
V
R
integrate
Reverse recovery transient
Switch the diode from forward to reverse bias
on
off
i
t
0
-w
p
w
n 0
p n
n
p

p
n

e
-
h
+
Steady state snap shots
How do we go from this:
Reverse bias current flows!!!
Excess carrier concentration 0
-w
p w
n
e
-
h
+
x
op
Ap
n
0
Ap
n
To this?
Transients when switching to reverse bias
e(t)
t
E
-E
p n
e(t)
i(t)
R
I
f
E/R
I
r
-E/R
I
V
I
f
-I
r
x
op
I
f
gradient0
I
r
gradient0
t
v(t)
t
i(t)
t
-E
Storage delay time: t
sd
i(t)
I
f
t
-I
r
v(t)
Time required for the stored charge to disappear
t
sd
= t
minority carrier
ln(1 + I
f
/I
r
)
t
sd
Calculate storage delay time: t
sd
dt
t dQ t Q
t i
p
p
p
p
) ( ) (
) ( + =
t
i(t)
I
F
t
-I
R
v(t)
t
sd
0 ) ( ; @
) 0 ( ) 0 ( ; 0 @
) 0 ( ) 0 ( ; 0 @
= =
= = =
= = =
+ + +

sd sd
R p R
F p F
t Q t t
I Q I i t
I Q I i t
t
t
dt
t dQ t Q
I
I t i t t
p
p
p
R
R p sd
) ( ) (
) ( 0
+ =
= < <
t
X
!
Calculated storage delay time: t
sd
i(t)
I
F
t
-I
R
v(t)
t
sd
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|

+ + =
+
+
=
|
|
.
|

\
|

+ + =

+ =

+
=

=

+ =
p
F p R p R p p
F p R p
p R p
p
p R p p R p
p
t
p R p
p
p R p
p
p
p
p
p R p
p
p
p
R
t
I I I t Q
I I
t Q I
t
Q I t Q I
t
t Q I
t
t Q I
t dQ
dt
dt
t dQ t Q I
dt
t dQ t Q
I
t
t t t
t t
t
t
t t
t
t
t
t t
t
t
t
exp ) (
) (
exp
) 0 ( ln ) ( ln
) ( ln
) (
) (
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
0
integrate
Calculated storage delay time: t
sd
i(t)
I
F
t
-I
R
v(t)
t
sd
( )
( )
( )
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + =
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + =
R
F R
p
F R
R
p sd
p
sd
F p R p R p
sd
p
F p R p R p p
I
I I
I I
I
t
t
I I I
t t
t
I I I t Q
ln ln
exp 0
exp ) (
t t
t
t t t
t
t t t
i(t)
I
F
t
-I
R
v(t)
t
sd
After: t
sd
0
0 ) (
=
=
d
sd p
v
t Q
E v
d
=
Build-up of
depletion region
depl bu
RC t ~
Small signal equivalent circuit
Junction capacitance Diffusion capacitance
p n
w
C
j
= c A/w
w function of bias
C voltage variable capacitance
Important in reverse bias
Due to charge storage effects
-w
p
w
n 0
p n
n
p

p
n

Due to depletion region
C
d
= dQ/dV = d (I t)/dV
= e/kT I t
Important in forward bias
Diffusion capacitance
Equivalent conductances
Diffusion conductance

g
d
= dI/dV = e/kT I
0
e
eV/kT
e/kT I

Slope of the current voltage
characteristic in forward
bias
Series resistance r
s

Due to n and p region +
contact resistance

V
d
= V
appl
r
s
I
r
d
r
s
C
j
C
d
Only linear circuit elements present
Large signal equivalent circuit
C
R
s

Reverse bias: depletion capacitance
Forward bias: diffusion capacitance
Non-linear circuit elements present
Conclusions
The characteristics in a pn diode are based
upon excess minority carrier diffusion.
Excess carrier concentrations are being formed
by injection of carriers across the junction.
The gradient of the excess minority carrier
concentration at the junction determines the
magnitude of the current.
Delay times are due to the storage of excess
minority charge in the layers.
Revision
When recombination is taken into account, the
excess minority carrier concentration reduces while
diffusing through the neutral regions of the diode.
The variation of the excess carrier concentration is
then given by:
p
p
p
x
p
D
t
p
t
o o o

c
c
=
c
c
2
2
Lifetime of minority
carrier holes
Revision
The steady state solution for the excess minority
carrier concentration is then:




This is considered too complex for quick
calculations and approximations are used in the
case of a short or long neutral region.
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|

A
=
p
n
p
n
L
X x
L
X
p
x p sinh
sinh
) ( o
Revision
Short:


X
n
L
p

p
n
(x)
x
0
p
n0
Ap
o
p
n
(
x
)

X
n
linear
p
n
(x)= p
n0
+ Ap (1x/X
n
)
op
n
(x)
Contact imposes
op
n
(X
n
)=0
p
n
Revision
Long:


X
n
>>> L
p

exponential
p
n
(x)
x
0
p
n0
Ap
o
p
n
(
x
)

p
n
(x)=p
n0
+Ap e
-x/Lp
p
n
L
p
Imposes op
n
(X
n
)=0

p
n
(x)=p
n0
+

(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|

A
p
n
p
p
n
L
X
L
x
L
X
p
exp exp
exp 1
Revision
These approximation make some errors in the calculation
of the current and the charge stored in the neutral regions.
However we will see that:


1. I and Q for simplified and non-simplified exponential variation
of op
n
(x) for X
n
is the same

2. I for is same as for linear approximation
when X
n
=L
p
op
n
(x) =
|
|
.
|

\
|
A
p
L
x
pexp
Errors on current
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1 2 3 4
Xn (nm)
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
a
.
u
.
)
Series1
Series2
Series3
Lp=20 nm
10
20 40 200
Correct
Exponential
Linear
Short = good approximation up to X
n
= L
p
Long = good approximation up to X
n
> 5 L
p