Field measurements and mapping Terminology on folds and folds Stereographic projections From maps to cross-sections Seismic Imaging
A geologic map represents the geometric relationship between the various rock units faults at the surface. Any interpretation of the subsurface must be consistent with the geologic control, and style of deformation revealed by the map; as well as with the information available from the subsurface (wells, seismic profiles).
Construction of a cross-section
Define the plane section (in general vertical but not necessarily). Determine topographic profile (without any vert. exaggeration) Plot geologic data (measurements of strike and dip; intersections of stratigraphic contacts; faults). Extrapolate and interpolate data.
Apparent dip angles can be determined from vector algebra, stereonets or graphs
Orthographic projections
- Some assumptions are needed to extrapolate. - Is the proposed section a possible geometry?
Parallel folding
Parallel folds commonly form by a deformation mechanism called flexural slip, where folding is accommodated by motions on minor faults that occur along some mechanical layering -- usually bedding. Flexural-slip surfaces, which can be observed in core or outcrop, may vary in spacing from a few millimeters to several tens of meters in spacing.
In that case of flexural slip folding there is conservation of bed length and of bed thickness
Two popular methods can then be used to construct balanced cross sections (applies to profile sections across cylindrical structures) -The Busk Method (Busk, 1929) - The Kink Method
the axial surface bisects the angle between the fold limbs
Axial angle : g
separated by axial surfaces. -the axial surface bisects the angle between the fold limbs
surface is formed. Its dip angle bisects the dip angles of the adjacent dip domains
Holland, 1914
The kink method is more general than the Busk method (any curve can be divided in straight segments).
Two possible interpretations of structural measurements at the surface and along an exploration well. Which one is most plausible?
The kink method is more general than the Busk method (any curve can be divided in straight segments).
This section is retrodeformable and is thus a plausible model (but not a unique solution).
A balanced cross-section generally yields a lower bound on the amount of shortening (because of erosion)
The non planar fault has a flat-ramp-flat geometry. Translation of the thrust sheet along that fault requires axial surfaces. Note the difference between the active and passive axial surfaces
Fault-bend folding
A balanced cross section might be checked and eventually retrodeformed based on the principle of conservation of area and conservation of bed length
Curvimetric Shortening: Sc= Lc-l Planimetric shortening: Sa=Asr/h Structural relief: Asr Undeformed depth of decollement below bed: h Area of Shortening: A Conservation of area implies: A=Asr= Sc*h. NB: Both quantities refer to a particular bed.
Conservation of area and bed length implies : - curvimetric shortening = planimetric shortening - Asr should increase linearly with elevation above decollement (h).
If area and bed length is preserved during folding then b is the most plausible solution or a is correct but some diapirism is involved
Equality of curvilinear and planimetric shortening can be used to either check the section or predict the depth to the decollement. NB: Be careful with the possibility of diapirism
(Mitra, 1988)
(Mitra, 1988)
(Suppe, 1983)
Fault-bend-folding +Imprication/Duplex