All species of animals learn in similar (equal ways with the same guiding principles

To understand learning processes, focus on stimulus and responses Internal process should be excluded from the study of learning. Learning is evidenced by a behavior change Organisms are blank slates at birth Learning is a result of environmental events

Classical conditioning:

addresses learning of involuntary responses. For example when the sound of a bell alone stimulates saliva flow in dogs.

Operant conditioning:
voluntary responses.

addresses learning of

Classical conditioning is a form of

associative learning unconditioned stimulus (US) + unconditioned response (UR) conditioned stimulus (CS) + conditioned response (CR)

Classical conditioning was the first type of learning to be discovered and studied within the behaviorist tradition (hence the name classical).

The major theorist in the development of classical conditioning is Ivan Pavlov, a Russian scientist trained in biology and medicine (as was his German contemporary, Sigmund Freud).

Pavlov was studying the digestive system of dogs and became intrigued with his observation that dogs deprived of food began to salivate when one of his assistants walked into the room.
He began to investigate this phenomena and established the laws of classical conditioning.

General model: Stimulus (S) elicits >Response (R) Classical conditioning starts with a reflex (R): an innate, involuntary behavior. This involuntary behavior is elicited or caused by an antecedent environmental event.

For example, if air is blown into your eye, you blink. You have no voluntary or conscious control over whether the blink occurs or not.

The specific model for classical conditioning is: A stimulus will naturally (without learning) elicit or bring about a reflexive response

Unconditioned Stimulus (US) elicits > Unconditioned Response (UR)

The specific model for classical conditioning is: Neutral Stimulus (NS) --- does not elicit the response of interest This stimulus (sometimes called an orienting stimulus as it elicits an orienting response) is a neutral stimulus since it does not elicit the Unconditioned (or reflexive) Response. The Neutral/Orienting Stimulus (NS) is repeatedly paired with the Unconditioned/Natural Stimulus (US).

The Neutral Stimulus (NS) is transformed into a Conditioned Stimulus (CS). That is, when the CS is presented by itself, it elicits or causes the CR (which is the same involuntary response as the UR.

The name changes because it is elicited by a different stimulus.

This is written CS elicits > CR.

Profoundly influenced by Pavlovs model of classical conditioning Revolutionize American psychology Behaviorism observable aspects of behavior. Its real goal is to provide the basis of control of human beings Emotional Learning Watsons Environmentalism

Watson changed the focus of psychology from introspection, to environmentalism. The principles of learning would account for the largest share of behavioral development and are exercised almost exclusively through environmental learning opportunities provided for children. (reflected in cultural diversity & learning studies)

He believed that environmental shaping of behavior began prenatally, and focused his studies on infants and children. He demonstrated the conditioned response in the case of Little Albert(Watson, 1925), who was exposed to an alarming noise and a rat at the same time, and developed not only a fear of rats, but transferred the fear to all furry objects.

Skinners work focused on the relationship between behavior and its consequences. Operant conditioning the use of pleasant and unpleasant consequences to change behavior. Skinner Box allows the study of behavior in a controlled environment.

Changes in behavior is the outcome of an individual responding to occurrences in the environment (stimuli) If the subject is correctly stimulated it will give the suitable response When a stimulus-response pattern is reinforced (rewarded), the individual is conditioned to respond in a certain manner

E.g. A child that is rewarded for their good behaviour and efforts within school will tend to follow this pattern to continue to keep being rewarded. If they show bad behaviour or no effort in school, and they are punished for this (privileges taken away) they will realize they are not gaining anything from this type of behaviour and stop

Skinner tested out the theory of operant conditioning on rats Rats were placed in metal cages with a number of levers. At first the rats would nose around the cage and accidentally press the levers, an action that would cause food or water to drop into a dish. After repeating the action, the rats saw that they could receive food and water by pressing the lever. (Learned this behavior) So, when the rats were rewarded they were conditioned to repeat this positive action to continue being rewarded

Continuous Reinforcement: Every time the rat does the appropriate behavior, he gets a pellet. Fixed ratio schedule: If the rat presses the pedal three times, he gets a pelletor five times, or twenty times, or x times. There is a fixed ratio between behaviors and reinforcers.

Fixed interval schedule: If the rat presses the bar at least once during a particular period of time, say 20 seconds, he gets a pellet. But whether he presses the bar once or a hundred times within that 20 seconds, he only receives one reinforcer. Variable ratio schedule: You change the x each time. First it takes 3 presses to get a pellet, then 10, then 4, etc. Variable interval schedule: You keep changing the time period. First 10 seconds, then 35, then 5, then 40.

Along with the rats, Skinner conducted experiments on pigeons

During World War II (1944) there were no missile guidance systems so Skinner decided to try and discover one. Skinner got funding for a top secret project to train pigeons to guide bombs. He trained pigeons to keep pecking a target that would hold a missile onto a target. The pigeons pecked reliably, even when falling rapidly and working with warlike noise all around them. (Learned behaviour)

Skinner trained the pigeons to peck at a particular colored disk

This is based on Skinners theory of Operant Conditioning- behaviours are repeated if they are rewarded, and behaviours that are punished will be avoided

POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT = increasing a behavior by administering a reward NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT = increasing a behavior by removing an aversive stimulus when a behavior occurs PUNISHMENT = decreasing a behavior by administering an aversive stimulus following a behavior OR by removing a positive stimulus

EXTINCTION = decreasing a behavior by not rewarding it

 Born August 31, 1874 Died August 9, 1949 Born in Williamsburg, Massachusetts Studied animal behaviour and the learning process led to the theory of connectionism Laying the foundation for modern educational psychology.

Thorndike looked at how cats learned to escape from puzzle boxes

The puzzle box experiments were motivated by Thorndike's dislike for statements that animals made use of extraordinary faculties such as insight in their problem solving.

Thorndike's instruments in answering this question were learning curves revealed by plotting the time it took for an animal to escape the box each time it was in the box

if the animals were showing insight, then their time to escape would suddenly drop to a negligible period, which would also be shown in the learning curve as an abrupt drop;
while animals using a more ordinary method of trial and error would show gradual curves.

His finding was that cats consistently showed gradual learning.

So it was trial-and-error These led Thorndike to formulate first his Principles of Learning and then his Theory of Learning that became the foundation of modern educational psychology.

Thorndike specified three conditions that maximizes learning:

The Law of Effect states that the likely recurrence of a response is generally governed by its consequence or effect generally in the form of reward or punishment. The Law of Recency states that the most recent response is likely to govern the recurrence. The Law of Exercise stated that stimulus-response associations are strengthened through repetition.

Thorndike went beyond Pavlov by showing that stimuli that occurred after a behavior had an influence on future behaviors

An act that is followed by a favorable effect is more likely to be repeated in similar situations; an act that is followed by unfavorable effect is less likely to be repeated.

"Of several responses made to the same situation, those which are accompanied or closely followed by satisfaction to the animal will, other things being equal, be more firmly connected with the situation, so that, when it recurs, they will be more likely to recur; those which are accompanied or closely followed by discomfort to the animal will, other things being equal, have their connections with that situation weakened, so that, when it recurs, they will be less likely to occur"
Thorndike, E. L. (1911). Animal intelligence: Experimental Studies. p. 244

Behavior changes according to its immediate consequences (immediacy of consequences is key). Reinforcers consequences that are likely to increase the frequency of the behavior, i.e., strengthen the behavior.

Primary reinforcers satisfy basic human needs.

Secondary reinforcers acquire their value for being associated with primary reinforcers.

Shaping guiding behavior toward goals by reinforcing the many steps that lead to success.
Extinction removing reinforcers from previously learned behavior until the behavior disappears. Extinction burst the increase in levels of behavior in the early stages of extinction. Positive reinforcement are usually things given to students that they value, e.g., praise. Negative reinforcement escape from an unpleasant or a way of preventing unpleasant behavior from occurring.

Punishment consequences that weaken behavior; punishment like reinforcement is in the eye of the receiver and the impact on behavior. Removal punishment forbidding a desirable task or situation; Presentation punishment (aversive stimulus) imposing an undesirable task or situation; and No reinforcement discourage behaviors. However, positive reinforcement generally works better to shape behavior than punishment.