3.

1 INTRODUCTION

Convection is one of the three basic mechanisms of heat transfer. It is a
heat transfer that takes place between moving fluid and solid surface. Like
conduction heat transfer, convection heat transfer requires material
medium. Heat transfer by convection combines heat transfer by
conduction and bulk flow of fluid.
Convection heat transfer depends on several parameters like:
Fluid properties
Dynamic viscosity, .
Thermal conductivity, k.
Density, .
Specific heat capacity, c
p
.
Fluid velocity, v.
Geometry of solid surface.
Roughness of solid surface.
Type of fluid flow (turbulent or laminar).

3.1 INTRODUCTION
The dependence of convection heat transfer on so many
variables makes it very complex and it is usually
determined experimentally.
The convection heat transfer rate is given by Newtons law
of cooling,
(3.1)
Where
h=convection heat transfer coefficient,
A=heat transfer surface area,
T
s
=surface temperature,
T

=fluid temperature far away from surface.

) (
.
.

= T T hA Q
s conv
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Non dimensional convection coefficient
The convection heat transfer coefficient, h, is
nondimensionalized to obtain the Nusselt number,
Nu.
(3.2)

Where k = thermal conductivity,
o= characteristic length.

k
h
Nu
o
=
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The Nusselt number can also be given as the ratio of
convection heat transfer rate to conduction heat
transfer rate.



(3.3)

rate transfer heat Conduction
rate transfer heat Convection
Nu =
.
.
.
.
cond
conv
Q
Q
Nu =
3.2 VELOCITY BOUNDARY LAYER
Fig. 3.1 Velocity boundary layer development over flat plate

= u u 99 . 0
o is the value of y for
which
3.2 VELOCITY BOUNDARY LAYER
For external flows the velocity boundary layer concept provides
the basis for determining the local friction coefficient.

(3.4)

Where the surface shear stress for Newtonian fluid is obtained
from the relation,

(3.5)

The drag or friction force over the surface is determined by
(3.6)

2
2
1

=
u
C
s
f

t
0 =
c
c
=
y
s
y
u
t
2
2

=
u
A C F
f D

3.3 THERMAL BOUNDARY LAYER
Fig. 3.2 Thermal boundary layer development over isothermal flat plate
o
t
is the value of y for which
the ratio
99 . 0 ) /( ) ( =

T T T T
s s
3.3 THERMAL BOUNDARY LAYER
At any distance x from the leading edge, the local heat flux may be obtained by applying
Fouriers law to the fluid at y= 0. That is,
(3.7)


By combining equation (3.7) with Newtons law of cooling we then obtain

(3.8)


The relative thickness of the velocity and thermal boundary layers is described by
Prandtl number,


The hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layers are related in terms of Prandtl number
as
(3.9)
0 =
c
c
=
y
f s
y
T
k q

c
c

=
T T
y
T
k
h
s
y
f
0
k
C
y diffusivit Heat
y diffusivit Momentum
P

o
v
= = = Pr
1
Pr
026 . 1
1

=
o
o
t
3.3 THERMAL BOUNDARY LAYER
Fig. 3.3 Relative thickness of the velocity and thermal boundary layers
3.4 LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW
Fig.3.4 Laminar, transition and turbulent flow regions
3.4 LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW
The location where the flow turns to turbulent is
determined by a dimensionless grouping of variables
called the Reynolds number.
(3.10)

Where u

=free stream velocity

o=characteristic length of the geometry
v=/=kinematic velocity of the fluid
The critical Reynolds number at which flow turns to
turbulent is about 5x10
5
.
v
o

= =
u
forces Vicous
forces Inertia
Re
3.5 FLOW OVER FLAT PLATES
The friction and heat transfer coefficients for a flat plate can be
determined by solving the conservation of mass, momentum
and energy equations. The average Nusselt number can be
expressed as
(3.11)

Where C, m and n are constants and L is length of the plate.
Generally, properties of the fluid vary with temperature. To
make the heat transfer analysis simple, properties are evaluated
at film temperature given by

(3.12)
In heat transfer analysis, we are usually interested in the heat
transfer and drag force on the entire surface of the plate which
are determined using the average heat transfer and friction
coefficients.
n m
L
C
k
hL
Nu Pr Re = =
2

+
=
T T
T
s
f
3.5 FLOW OVER FLAT PLATES
The local and average Nusselt number and friction
coefficient are determined for laminar and turbulent
flows separately,
Laminar flow
The boundary layer thickness
(3.13)

Local friction coefficient
(3.14)
2
1
Re
5
x
x
= o
2
1 2
,
Re
664 . 0
2 / 1
x
x
x f
u
C = =

t
3.5 FLOW OVER FLAT PLATES
Combining equations (3.9) and (3.13), the thermal
boundary layer thickness is given by
(3.15)

Local Nusselt number

(3.16)
Average friction coefficient

(3.17)

)(Pr) (Re 026 . 1
5
Pr
026 . 1
1
2 / 1
1
x
t
x
= =

o o
) 6 . 0 ( Pr Re 332 . 0
3
1
2
1
> = = pr
k
x h
Nu x
x
x
2
1
Re
328 . 1
L
f
C =
3.5 FLOW OVER FLAT PLATES
Average Nusselt number

(3.18)
The critical Reynolds number

) 6 . 0 ( Pr Re 664 . 0
3
1
2
1
> = = pr
k
hL
Nu L
5
10 5 Re = =

v
Cr
Cr
x u
3.5 FLOW OVER FLAT PLATES
Turbulent flow
Local friction coefficient
(3.19)
Local Nusselt number
(3.20)
Average friction coefficient
(3.21)
Average Nusselt number
(3.22)

( )
7 5
5
1 ,
10 Re 10 5
Re
0592 . 0
s s =
x
x
x f
C
|
|
.
|

\
|
s s
s s
= =
7 5
3
1
5
4
10 Re 10 5
60 6 . 0
Pr Re 0296 . 0
x
x
x
x
pr
k
x h
Nu
( )
7 5
5
1
10 Re 10 5
Re
074 . 0
s s =
L
L
f
C
|
|
.
|

\
|
s s
s s
= =
7 5
3
1
5
4
10 Re 10 5
60 6 . 0
Pr Re 037 . 0
L
L
pr
k
hL
Nu
3.5 FLOW OVER FLAT PLATES
For combined laminar and turbulent flow
(3.23)

(3.24)
The heat transfer rate is obtained from
(3.25)
Where

The drag force is calculated as
(3.26)
( )
7 5
5
1
10 Re 10 5
Re
1742
Re
074 . 0
s s =
L
L
L
f
C
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
s s
s s
= =
7 5
3
1
5
4
10 Re 10 5
60 6 . 0
Pr 871 Re 037 . 0
L
L
pr
k
hL
Nu
) (
.
.

= T T hA Q
s conv
( )
L
k Nu
h =
2
2

=
u
A C F
f D

3.5 FLOW OVER FLAT PLATES
Example 3.1
An electric air heater consists of a horizontal array of thin metal
strips that are each 10mm long in the direction of an airstream
that is in parallel flows over the top of the strips. Each strip is
0.2m wide, and 25 strips are arranged side by side, forming a
continuous and smooth surface over which the air flows at
2m/s. During operation each strip is maintained at 500
0
C and
the air is at 25
0
C.
a. What is the rate of convection heat transfer from the first
strip? The fifth strip? The tenth strip? All the strips?
b. For air velocities at 3, 5, and 10 m/s, determine the
convection heat rates for all the locations of part (a).
Represent your results in tabular or bar graph form.
3.5 FLOW OVER FLAT PLATES
Solution

3.5 FLOW OVER FLAT PLATES
Properties of air (T
f
=535K, 1atm): v=43.54x10
-6
m
2
/s,
k=0.0429W/m.K, Pr=0.683.
a)The location of transition is determined from


Since x
c
>>L=0.25m, the air flow is laminar over the entire
heater. For the first strip,

where h
1
is obtained from

Then
m
u
x
c
9 . 10
2
10 54 . 43
10 5 10 5
6
5 5
=

= =

u
( )( )

A = T T w L h Q
s 1 1
.
K m w
L
k
h x
2
3
1
2
1
1
/ 8 . 53 Pr Re 664 . 0 =
A
=
w Q 1 . 51
1
.
=
3.5 FLOW OVER FLAT PLATES
for the fifth strip,






In similar manner for the tenth strip and entire 25 strips,

4 0
.
5 0 5
.

= Q Q Q
( )( ) ( )( )

A A = T T w L h T T w L h Q
s s
4 5
4 0 5 0 5
.
K m w
L
k
h
and K m w
L
k
h
x
x
2
3
1
2
1
04 . 0
4 0
2
3
1
2
1
05 . 0
5 0
/ 9 . 26 Pr Re 664 . 0
4
/ 1 . 24 Pr Re 664 . 0
5
=
A
=
=
A
=
=

w Q 2 . 12
5
.
=
( )( ) ( )( ) w T T w L h T T w L h Q
s s
3 . 8 9 10
9 0 10 0 10
.
= A A =

( )( ) w T T w L h Q
s
3 . 255
25 0 25 0
.
= =

3.5 FLOW OVER FLAT PLATES
b) velocity,
m/s
heat transfer rate, w
first strip fifth strip tenth strip entire strip
2
51.08 12.06 8.29 255.39
5
80.76 19.06 13.11 403.80
10
114.20 26.96 18.53 571.06
3.6 FLOW ACROSS CYLINDERS AND SPHERES
The average Nusselt number for flow over a
cylinder is given empirically as proposed by
Churchill and Bernstein:

(3.27)

Equation (3.26) is applicable for conditions where
Re.Pr > 0.2. The fluid properties are evaluated at
film temperature .

( )
5
4
8
5
4
1
3
2
3
1
2
1
28200
Re
1
Pr
4 . 0
1
Pr Re 62 . 0
3 . 0
(
(

|
.
|

\
|
+
(

+
+ = =
k
hD
Nu
2

+
=
T T
T
s
f
3.6 FLOW ACROSS CYLINDERS AND SPHERES
The average Nusselt number for flow over a cylinder can
be expressed in compact form as

(3.28)
Where the constants C and m are obtained from table 3.1.
Heat transfer to or from a bank (or bundle) of tubes in
cross flow is relevant to numerous industrial applications,
such as steam generation in a boiler or air cooling in the
coil of an air conditioner.

3
1
Pr Re
m
C
k
hD
Nu = =
3.6 FLOW ACROSS CYLINDERS AND SPHERES
Table 3.1 Constants used in equation (3.28)
3.6 FLOW ACROSS CYLINDERS AND SPHERES
The tube rows of a bank are either staggered or aligned in the
direction of the fluid velocity V (Fig. 3.6)

Fig. 3.5 Tube bank in cross flow
3.6 FLOW ACROSS CYLINDERS AND SPHERES
Fig. 3.6 Aligned and staggered tube arrangement
3.6 FLOW ACROSS CYLINDERS AND SPHERES
For airflow across tube bundles composed of 10 or
more rows (N
L
>10), the average Nusselt number can be
obtained by the Grimison correlation,

(3.29)

The constants C
1
and m are obtained from table 3.2.
The maximum Reynolds number is given by
(3.30)

(
(
(

>
< <
>
= =
7 . 0 Pr
000 , 40 Re 2000
10
Re
max , max , 1 D
L
m
D
N
C
k
hD
Nu

D V
D
max
max ,
Re =
3.6 FLOW ACROSS CYLINDERS AND SPHERES
For the aligned arrangement the maximum velocity, V
max

occurs at the transverse plane A
1
of Fig. 3.6a and is given for
an incompressible fluid as

(3.31)
For the staggered configuration, the maximum velocity may
occur at either the transverse plane A
1
or the diagonal plane
A
2
. It will occur at A
2
if the rows are spaced such that

Where S
D
is given by

V
D S
S
V
T
T

=
max
2
) ( ) ( 2
D S
S or D S D S
T
D T D
+
< <
2
1
2
2
2
(
(

|
.
|

\
|
+ =
T
L D
S
S S
3.6 FLOW ACROSS CYLINDERS AND SPHERES
And

(3.32)
If S
D
>(S
T
+D)/2, the maximum velocity occurs at A
1
and is
given by equation (3.31).
For flow of fluids other than air equation (3.28) is modified
by inserting 1.13Pr
1/3
.

(3.33)

All the properties in these equations are evaluated at film
temperature. If N
L
<10 a correction factor given in table 3.3 is
used as
(3.34)

( )
V
D S
S
V
D
T

=
2
max
(
(
(

>
< <
>
= =
7 . 0 Pr
000 , 40 Re 2000
10
Pr Re 13 . 1
max ,
3
1
max , 1 D
L
m
D
N
C
k
hD
Nu
10
2 10
>
<
=
L
L N
N
Nu C Nu
3.6 FLOW ACROSS CYLINDERS AND SPHERES
Table 3.2 Constants used in equations (3.29) and (3.33)
3.6 FLOW ACROSS CYLINDERS AND SPHERES
Table 3.3 Constant C
2
used in equation (3.34)
3.6 FLOW ACROSS CYLINDERS AND SPHERES
The heat transfer rate could be more predicted by using the
log mean temperature difference instead of using AT=T
s
-T
.

(3.35)

Where T
i
and T
o
are temperatures of the fluid as it enters and
leaves the bank, respectively.
The outlet temperature, which is needed to determine AT
lm

may be estimated from
(3.36)

Where N is the total number of tubes in the bank , N
T
is the
number of tubes in the transverse plane and V is the speed at inlet.
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) | |
o s i s
o s i s
lm
T T T T
T T T T
T


= A
/ ln
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

P T T i s
o s
c S VN
DNh
T T
T T

t
exp
3.6 FLOW ACROSS CYLINDERS AND SPHERES
Once AT
lm
is known, the heat transfer rate may be
computed from
(3.37)
For flows over a sphere, the average Nusselt number
can be obtained by the Whitaker correlation,
(3.38)

Equation (3.37) is valid for 3.5Re 80,000 and
0.7Pr380. The fluid properties are evaluated at film
temperature except
s
which is evaluated at the surface
temperature, T
s
.

( )
lm
T DL h N Q A = t
.
4
1
4 . 0
3
2
2
1
Pr Re 06 . 0 Re 4 . 0 2
|
|
.
|

\
|
(

+ + = =

s
k
hD
Nu

3.6 FLOW ACROSS CYLINDERS AND SPHERES

Example 3.2
A preheater involves the use of condensing steam at
100
0
C on the inside of bank of tubes to heat air that
enters at 1atm and 25
0
C. The air moves at 5m/s in cross
flow over the tubes. Each tube is 1m long and has an
outside diameter of 10mm. The bank consists of 196
tube in a square, aligned array for which S
T
=S
L
=15mm.
What is the total rate of heat transfer to the air?
3.6 FLOW ACROSS CYLINDERS AND SPHERES
Solution

3.6 FLOW ACROSS CYLINDERS AND SPHERES
Atmospheric air (T

=298K):=15.8x10
-6
m
2
/s,
k=0.0263W/mK, Pr=0.707, c
p
=1007J/kgK, =1.17kg/m
3
;
(T
s
=373K): Pr=0.695
The total heat transfer rate



From tables 3.2 and 3.3, C = 0.27, m = 0.63 and C
2
=0.99.

( ) ( )
( ) ( ) | |
lm
o s i s
o s i s
T DL N h
T T T T
T T T T
DL N h Q A =


= t t
/ ln
.
9494
10 8 . 15
01 . 0 15
Re , / 15 5
5
15
6
max , max
=

= = =

=

D
T
T
s m V
D S
S
V
3.6 FLOW ACROSS CYLINDERS AND SPHERES
From the Zhukauskas correlation







Hence,

( ) ( ) ( )
( )
C
c S VN
h DN
T T T T
K m W D k Nu h
Nu
p T T
i s o s
D
D
0
2
4 / 1 36 . 0 63 . 0
7 . 27
1007 015 . 0 14 5 17 . 1
200 196 01 . 0
exp 75
exp
. / 200 01 . 0 / 0263 . 0 9 . 75 /
9 . 75 695 . 0 / 707 . 0 707 . 0 9494 27 . 0 99 . 0
=
|
.
|

\
|


=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
= = =
= =
t

t
( )
kW T DL N h Q
lm
5 . 58
7 . 27 / 75 ln
7 . 27 75
1 01 . 0 196 200
.
=

= A = t t
3.7 FLOW IN TUBES
Fig. 3.7 Hydrodynamic boundary layer development in tube
3.7 FLOW IN TUBES
Fig. 3.8 Thermal boundary layer development in
tube
3.7 FLOW IN TUBES
The Reynolds number for flow in a circular tube is
defined as
(3.39)
Where is the fluid density
D is tube diameter
is fluid dynamic viscosity
u
m
is the average fluid velocity given by
(3.40)

Where is mass flow rate of fluid.

D u
m
D
= Re
A
m
u
m

.
=
.
m
3.7 FLOW IN TUBES
In a fully developed flow the critical Reynolds
number is 2300.
The pressure drop during the flow is given by
(3.41)
Where f is the friction factor and L is tube length
For laminar and turbulent flows the hydrodynamic
entry lengths may be obtained from
(3.42)

(3.43)
2
2
m
u
D
L
f P

= A
D x
D
lam
h fd
Re 05 . 0
,
~
D x
turb
h fd
10
,
~
3.7 FLOW IN TUBES
For laminar and turbulent flows the thermal entry
lengths may be obtained from
(3.44)

(3.45)
Laminar flow
For hydrodynamically developed laminar flow in a
tube, the velocity profile is profile is parabolic and
given by
(3.46)

D x
D
lam
t fd
Pr Re 05 . 0
,
~
D x
turb
t fd
10
,
~
) 1 ( 2 ) (
2
2
o
m
r
r
u r u =
3.7 FLOW IN TUBES
And the surface shear stress is
(3.47)

The surface shear stress can also be written as

(3.48)
It follows from equations (3.46) and (3.47) that the
friction coefficient C
f
can be given as

(3.49)
D
u
dr
du
m
r r
s
o

t
8
2 = =
=
2
2
m
f s
u
C

t =
D
f
C
Re
16
=
3.7 FLOW IN TUBES
The friction factor f used in the pressure drop
calculation in laminar flow is given by

(3.50)
The average Nusselt number for the hydrodynamically
or thermally developed laminar flow is given by Sider
and Tate
(3.51)
All the properties are evaluated at bulk mean fluid
temperature, except for
s
, which is evaluated at the
surface temperature.

D
f
Re
64
=
14 . 0
3
1
Pr Re
86 . 1
|
|
.
|

\
|
(

= =
s
b
L
D
k
hD
Nu

3.7 FLOW IN TUBES

Turbulent flow
The friction factor for fully developed turbulent flow in a smooth
tube is given by
(3.52)
For flows in smooth or rough tubes the friction factor is obtained
from Moody diagram of Fig. 3.9.
The friction factor can be obtained from the Colebrook equation
for flows in smooth or rough tubes in transition and turbulent
flows.
(3.53)

The average Nusselt number for turbulent flow in a tube is given
from the Chilton-Colburn correlation as
(3.54)

2 . 0
Re 184 . 0

=
D
f
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
f
D
f Re
51 . 2
7 . 3
.
log 0 . 2
1 c
3
1
Pr Re 125 . 0 f Nu
D
=
3.7 FLOW IN TUBES
Fig. 3.9 The Moody Diagram
3.7 FLOW IN TUBES
Material Condition (mm)
Steel Sheet metal, new
Stainless, new
Commercial, new
Riveted
Rusted
0.05
0.002
0.046
3.0
2.0
Iron Cast, new
Wrought, new
Galvanized, new
Asphalted cast
0.26
0.046
0.15
0.12
Brass Drawn, new 0.002
Plastic Drawn tubing 0.0015
Glass - 0 (smooth)
Concrete Smoothed
Rough
0.04
2.0
Rubber Smoothed 0.01
Wood Stave 0.5
Table 3.4 Roughness Values for Commercial Ducts
3.7 FLOW IN TUBES
Example 3.3
An engine oil cooler consists of a bundle of 25 smooth
tubes, each of length L=2.5m and diameter of
D=110mm.
a) If oil at total flow rate of 24kg/s is in fully developed
flow through the tubes, what are the power drop and
the pump power requirements?
b) Compute and plot the pressure drop and pump power
requirement as a function of flow rate for 10-30kg/s.

3.7 FLOW IN TUBES
Solution





Properties of Engine oil (300 K): =884kg/m
3
,
=0.486kg/s.m.



3.7 FLOW IN TUBES
a) Considering flow through a single tube



Hence, the flow is laminar and


5 . 251
486 . 0 01 . 0 25
24 4 4
Re
.
=


= =
t tD
m
D
2545 . 0
5 . 251
64
Re
64
= = =
D
f
( )
( ) ( )
s m
D
m
u
m
/ 8 . 13
4 / 01 . 0 884
25 / 24
4 /
2 2
.
1
= = =
t
t
3.7 FLOW IN TUBES
The pressure drop is,


The pump power required is

Mpa m N L
D
u
f p
m
38 . 5 / 10 38 . 5 5 . 2
01 . 0 2
8 . 13 884
2545 . 0
2
2 6
2 2
= =

= = A

kw
m
p V p P 146
884
24
10 38 . 5
6
.
.
= = A = A =

3.7 FLOW IN TUBES

b) Plot of pressure drop and pump power

3.7 FLOW IN TUBES
Example 3.4
Water at 15
0
C (=999.1kg/m
3
and =1.138x10
-3
kg/ms) is
flowing in a 4cm diameter and 30m long horizontal
pipe made of new stainless steel steadily at a rate of
5L/s. Determine (a) the pressure drop and (b) the
pumping power requirement to overcome this pressure
drop.
L = 30 m
D = 4 cm

Water
5 L/s
3.7 FLOW IN TUBES
Solution
The density and dynamic viscosity of water are given to be
(=999.1kg/m
3
and =1.138x10
-3
kg/ms, respectively. The
roughness of new stainless steel is 0.002 mm (Table 3.4).
First we calculate the mean velocity and the Reynolds
number to determine the flow regime:



which is greater than 10,000. Therefore, the flow is turbulent.
5
3
3
2
3
2
10 40 . 1
s kg/m 10 138 . 1
m) m/s)(0.04 98 . 3 )( kg/m 1 . 999 (
Re
/ m 98 . 3
4 / m) (0.04
/ m 0.005
4 /
=

= =
= = = =

t t
D
s
s
D
V
A
V
m
c
m
V
V

3.7 FLOW IN TUBES
The relative roughness of the pipe is


The friction factor can be determined from the Moody
chart, but to avoid the reading error, we determine it
from the Colebrook equation using an equation solver
(or an iterative scheme),

10 5
m 04 . 0
m 10 2
/
5
6

= D c
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =

f f f
D
f
5
5
10 40 . 1
51 . 2
7 . 3
10 5
log 0 . 2
1

Re
51 . 2
7 . 3
/
log 0 . 2
1 c
3.7 FLOW IN TUBES
It gives f = 0.0171. Then the pressure drop and the required
power input become
(a)




(b)

Therefore, useful power input in the amount of 0.508 kW is
needed to overcome the frictional losses in the pipe.

101.5kPa
kN/m 1
kPa 1
ms kg 1000
kN 1
2
m/s )(3.98 kg/m (999.1
04 . 0
m 30
0.0171
2
V
D
L
f P
2
2 3
2
m
=
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
=


m
kW 0.508 = |
.
|

\
|

= A =
/s m kPa 1
kW 1
) kPa 5 . 101 )( / m 005 . 0 (
3
3
u pump,
s P V W