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What is Quality ?
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Quality is a measure of the customers experience with the
product or service with respect to specifications, requirements
and expectations.
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d
Quality
Meeting Customers
Expectations Through
Design and Mfg
Reliability
Ensuring the Ability to
Retain Quality Over a Period
of Time
Product Support
Providing Necessary
Support to Ensure
Reliability
Competitive
Edge
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b
Customer Supplier
Sample
Insp.
Sample
Insp.
Customer Supplier
Sample
Insp.
Process control
Customer Supplier
100%
Insp.
100%
Insp.
Customer Supplier
Trends in quality control
process
Process of quality control
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Sony produced TVs in the U.S. and Japan. Sony had significantly
more complaints from the U.S. TVs even though both factories
produced zero defects. The Japanese factory manufactured on
target using Taguchi techniques.

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A procedure for sentencing incoming batches
or lots of items without doing 100% inspection
What is acceptance sampling?
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Why not 100% inspection?
-Very expensive
-Cant use when product must be destroyed to
test
-Handling by inspectors can itself induce defects
-Inspection becomes tedious in order to prevent
defective items from slipping through inspection
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Purpose of acceptance sampling?
Assessing the average quality level of an incoming
shipment or at the end of production and judge
whether quality level is within the level that has been
predetermined.
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The general approach
N
(Lot)
n
Count
Number
Conforming
Accept or
Reject Lot
Specify the sampling plan
For a lot size N, determine
the sample size (s) n, and
Select acceptance criteria for good lots
Select rejection criteria bad lots
Accept the lot if acceptance criteria are satisfied
Specify course of action if lot is rejected
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What's a good and bad lot ?
Acceptance quality level (AQL)
The smallest percentage of defectives that will
make the lot definitely acceptable. A quality
level that is the base line requirement of the
customer
RQL or Lot tolerance percent defective (LTPD)
Impacts discriminating power of plan-
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d s Ac ?
Reject lot
Yes
Accept lot
Do 100%
inspection
Return lot
to supplier
Inspect all items in the
sample
Defectives found = d
No
Take a
randomized
sample of size n
from the lot N
Example : Single
Sampling procedure
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Sampling plans are based on sample statistics
and the theory says that since we inspect only
a sample and not the whole lot, there is a
chance of making an error.
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We need to consider two types of errors that result in
wrong decisions
Type 1 Error No Error
No Error Type 2 Error
Reject Accept
Good lot
Bad lot
T
R
U
T
H
DECISION
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TYPE I ERROR = P (reject good lot)
o or Producers risk
5% is common

TYPE II ERROR = P (accept bad lot)
| or Consumers risk
10% is typical value
Errors and Risks
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Consumers risk
Receive shipment, assume good quality,
actually bad quality
Beta (|) risk
= Prob (committing Type II error)
= Prob (accepting a lot at RQL quality level)
Producers & Consumers
Risks
CONTROL CHARTS
In Control Process Lets
represent it
with
Process Shift
Shift in Avg
Shift in Std Dev
Shift in Avg and Std Dev
Detect using a control chart and Restore
If we can understand variation that occurs in any
process, then we begin to understand how to
control that process by eliminating special causes
of variation

For a manufacturing process, this means reducing
the variability of the process by using a mechanism
for minimizing the number of non-conformances
Process Performance Measures
Mean
Standard deviation
Process Performance Measures
= ( y) / n
Mean
Process Performance Measures
Standard deviation
Data Analysis
10 mm
9.57 9.91 9.45 9.85 9.89
9.75 9.62 9.71 10.59 10.23
9.54 10.07 9.77 10.26 9.97
9.89 10.38 9.36 10.71 9.84
9.99 10.36 9.83 9.80 10.40
10.01 10.52 9.88 10.50 9.97
9.90 9.34 10.04 9.52 9.79
10.66 9.93 9.89 10.16 9.49
9.48 10.33 9.90 10.27 9.94
9.78 9.67 9.89 10.58 10.20
Measured sample Averages
Histogram
5 10 15
0
10
20
Data Points
Histogram
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y

C
o
u
n
t
9.57 9.91 9.45 9.85 9.89
9.75 9.62 9.71 10.59 10.23
9.54 10.07 9.77 10.26 9.97
9.89 10.38 9.36 10.71 9.84
9.99 10.36 9.83 9.80 10.40
10.01 10.52 9.88 10.50 9.97
9.90 9.34 10.04 9.52 9.79
10.66 9.93 9.89 10.16 9.49
9.48 10.33 9.90 10.27 9.94
9.78 9.67 9.89 10.58 10.20
Measured sample Averages
- Common Causes
Variation inherent in a process
Can be eliminated only through improvements in the system

- Special Causes
Variation due to identifiable factors
Can be modified through operator or management action
Causes of variation
x =
x
i
i =1
n

n
o =
x
i
x ( )

2
n 1
Common Causes
Assignable Causes
Average
Process Tracking
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
.
LCL=0.8236
CL=9.85
UCL=18.88
Data1_A
Individuals (X) Chart
I
n
d
i
v
i
d
u
a
l
s
Subgroup No.

1 Sigma = 68.25 % Yield
2 Sigma = 95.5 % Yield
3 Sigma = 99.73 % Yield
6 Sigma = 99.99998 % Yield

Control Charts
UCL
Nominal
LCL
1 2 3
Samples
Assignable
causes likely
Sampling distribution
Control Limits and Errors
UCL
LCL
Process
average
Control Limits and Errors
Type I error:
Probability of searching for
a cause when none exists
UCL
LCL
Process
average
Control Limits and Errors
Type I error:
Probability of searching for
a cause when none exists
Shift in process
average
UCL
LCL
Process
average
Control Limits and Errors
Type I error:
Probability of searching for
a cause when none exists
Type II error:
Probability of concluding
that nothing has changed
Shift in process
average
UCL
LCL
Process
average
Type 1 Error No Error
No Error Type 2 Error
Alarm No Alarm
In-Control
Out-of-Control
Calculating Type 1 error
1. Z = (UCL-CL) / (o / \n)
2. For this z find P( x s UCL)
3. Find 1 - P( x s UCL)
4. Multiply by 2 to get two tailed value
Relation between population and sampling
distribution
Calculating Type 2 error
1. Z
1
= (UCL- shifted CL) / (o / \n)
2. Z
2
= (LCL- shifted CL) / (o / \n)
3. Find P( x s UCL) and P( x s LCL)
4. P (type 2 error) = P( x s UCL) - P( x s LCL)
Example 1 : If CL= 3, o = 2, n = 5, find probability
of type 1 error corresponding to a UCL of 5.
Example 2 : If CL shifts to 4 for the above process,
find the probability of type 2 error.
a CDF a CDF
-4.000 0.00003 0.000 0.50000
-3.900 0.00005 0.100 0.53983
-3.800 0.00007 0.200 0.57926
-3.719 0.00010 0.300 0.61791
-3.700 0.00011 0.400 0.65542
-3.600 0.00016 0.431 0.66667
-3.500 0.00023 0.500 0.69146
-3.400 0.00034 0.600 0.72575
-3.300 0.00048 0.674 0.75000
-3.291 0.00050 0.700 0.75804
-3.200 0.00069 0.800 0.78814
-3.100 0.00097 0.900 0.81594
a CDF a CDF
-3.090 0.00100 1.000 0.84134
-3.000 0.00135 1.100 0.86433
-2.900 0.00187 1.200 0.88493
-2.800 0.00256 1.282 0.90000
-2.700 0.00347 1.300 0.90320
-2.600 0.00466 1.400 0.91924
-2.576 0.00500 1.500 0.93319
-2.500 0.00621 1.600 0.94520
-2.400 0.00820 1.645 0.95000
-2.326 0.01000 1.700 0.95543
-2.300 0.01072 1.800 0.96407
-2.200 0.01390 1.900 0.97128
-2.100 0.01786 1.960 0.97500
-2.000 0.02275 2.000 0.97725
a CDF a CDF
-1.960 0.02500 2.100 0.98214
-1.900 0.02872 2.200 0.98610
-1.800 0.03593 2.300 0.98928
-1.700 0.04457 2.326 0.99000
-1.645 0.05000 2.400 0.99180
-1.600 0.05480 2.500 0.99379
-1.500 0.06681 2.576 0.99500
-1.400 0.08076 2.600 0.99534
-1.300 0.09680 2.700 0.99653
-1.282 0.10000 2.800 0.99744
-1.200 0.11507 2.900 0.99813
-1.100 0.13567 3.000 0.99865
-1.000 0.15866 3.090 0.99900
-0.900 0.18406 3.100 0.99903
a CDF a CDF
-0.800 0.21186 3.200 0.99931
-0.700 0.24196 3.291 0.99950
-0.674 0.25000 3.300 0.99952
-0.600 0.27425 3.400 0.99966
-0.500 0.30854 3.500 0.99977
-0.431 0.33333 3.600 0.99984
-0.400 0.34458 3.700 0.99989
-0.300 0.38209 3.719 0.99990
-0.200 0.42074 3.800 0.99993
-0.100 0.46017 3.900 0.99995
4.000 0.99997