Deep Gandhi (06010419) Hemant Kumar Bhaskar (06010421) 1 CE 612: Term Paper 1. Introduction In general Nondestructive testing (NDT) is a wide group of analysis techniques used in the industry to evaluate the properties of a material, component or system without causing damage.
In the context of concrete, the use of NDT is relatively new. The slow development of NDT techniques for concrete is because, unlike steel, concrete is a highly non homogeneous composite material with varying composition and different raw materials. 2 CE 612: Term Paper Introduction contd. The placing, consolidation, and curing of concrete takes place in the field using labor that is relatively unskilled. The resulting product is, by its very nature and construction method, highly variable and does not lend itself to testing by traditional nondestructive methods as easily as steel products. 3 CE 612: Term Paper Introduction contd. Despite the above drawbacks, there has been progress in the development of nondestructive methods for testing concrete, and several methods have been standardized by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), the Canadian Standards Association (CSA), the International Standards Organization (ISO), the British Standards Institute (BSI), and others.
Nondestructive methods cannot yield absolute values of these properties. Methods have been developed to measure other properties of concrete from which estimates of mechanical properties or other characteristics related to performance can be inferred. 4 CE 612: Term Paper 2. Types of NDTs NDTs can be classified into two classes.
The first class consists of those methods that are used to estimate strength. The surface hardness, penetration resistance, pullout, break-off, pull-off, and maturity techniques belong to this category.
Some of these methods are not truly nondestructive because they cause some surface damage, which is, however, minor compared with that produced by drilling a core. 5 CE 612: Term Paper Types of NDTs contd. The second class includes those methods that measure other characteristics of concrete such as moisture content, density, thickness, resistivity, and permeability.
Also included in the second class are such methods as stress wave propagation, ground probing radar, and infrared thermography techniques, which are used to locate voids and cracks in concrete. In addition, there are methods to provide information on steel reinforcement such as bar location, bar size, and whether the bars are corroding. 6 CE 612: Term Paper 2.1 Surface Hardness Methods The increase in the hardness of concrete with age and strength has led to the development of test methods to measure this property. These methods consist of the indentation type and those based on the rebound principle.
The indentation methods consist principally of impacting the surface of concrete by means of a given mass having a given kinetic energy and measuring the width and or depth of the resulting indentation. 7 CE 612: Term Paper 2.1 Surface Hardness Methods contd., The methods based on the rebound principle consist of measuring the rebound of a spring driven hammer mass after its impact with concrete: - Indentation Methods - Testing Pistol by Williams - Spring Hammer by Frank - Pendulum Hammer by Einbeck 8 CE 612: Term Paper FIGURE 2.1.1 Vertical elevation and plan of Einbeck pendulum hammer. Source Handbook on Nondestructive Testing of Concrete, Second Edition ASTM International 9 CE 612: Term Paper Rebound Method Rebound Hammer by Schmidt
FIGURE 2.1.2 Schmidt rebound hammer. Source Handbook on Nondestructive Testing of Concrete, Second Edition ASTM International 10 CE 612: Term Paper FIGURE 2.1.3 A cutaway schematic view of the Schmidt rebound hammer Source Handbook on Nondestructive Testing of Concrete, Second Edition ASTM International 11 CE 612: Term Paper
Limitations of these methods. The Indentation methods do a small extent of damage to the surface.
The rebound hammer provides a quick, inexpensive means of checking the uniformity of concrete, it has serious limitations and these must be recognized. The results of the Schmidt rebound hammer are affected by:
1. Smoothness of test surface 2. Size, shape, and rigidity of the specimens 3. Age of test specimens 4. Surface and internal moisture conditions of the concrete 5. Type of coarse aggregate 6. Type of cement 7. Type of mold 8. Carbonation of the concrete surface 12 CE 612: Term Paper 2.2 Penetration Resistance Methods
Penetration resistance methods are based on the determination of the depth of penetration of probes (steel rods or pins) into concrete. This provides a measure of the hardness or penetration resistance of the material that can be related to its strength. 13 CE 612: Term Paper Pin Penetration Test
simple pin penetration test for the determination of early- stage strength of concrete for removal of concrete formwork. The apparatus consists of a device that grips a pin having a length of 30.5 mm, a diameter of 3.56 mm and a tip machined at an angle of 22.5
Limitations:-
Penetration resistance methods are basically hardness methods, and like other hardness methods, should not be expected to yield absolute values of strength of concrete in a structure. 14 CE 612: Term Paper FIGURE 2.2.3 Diagram of pin penetration testing apparatus. Source Handbook on Nondestructive Testing of Concrete, Second Edition ASTM International 15 CE 612: Term Paper 2.3 Pullout Test The pullout test measures the force required to pull an embedded metal insert with an enlarged head from a concrete specimen or a structure.
FIGURE 2.3.1 Schematic of the pullout test. Source Handbook on Nondestructive Testing of Concrete, Second Edition ASTM International 16 CE 612: Term Paper 2.4 The Break-Off Test Method For many years questions have been raised regarding concrete quality assurance test methods based upon standard cube tests, which measure the potential strength of a concrete batch.
In-place concrete strength is not the same as the cube concrete strength because the in-place concrete is placed, compacted, and cured in a different manner than the cube specimen concrete.
Determination of accurate in-place strength is critical in form removal and prestress or post-tension force release operations. Fast construction techniques and construction failures emphasize the need for adopting methods for determining in-place concrete strength
17 CE 612: Term Paper BO Test Equipment
The BO tester consists of a load cell, a manometer, and a manual hydraulic pump capable of breaking a cylindrical concrete specimen having the specified dimensions
The load cell has two measuring ranges: low range setting for low strength concrete up to approximately 20 MPa (3000 psi) and high range setting for higher strength concrete up to about 60 MPa (9000 psi).
A tubular plastic sleeve, with internal diameter of 55 mm (2.17 in.) and geometry shown in, is used for forming cylindrical specimen in fresh concrete. A sleeve remover is used for removing the plastic sleeve from the hardened concrete. A diamond tipped drilling bit is used for drilling cores for the BO test in hardened concrete. 18 CE 612: Term Paper FIGURE 2.4.1 Schematic of concrete cylindrical specimen obtained by inserting a sleeve or drilling a core, and location of applied load. Source Handbook on Nondestructive Testing of Concrete, Second Edition ASTM International
19 CE 612: Term Paper Applications The BO test can be used both for quality control and quality assurance. The most practical use of the BO test method is for determining the time for safe form removal.
The main advantage of the BO test is that it measures in-place concrete (flexural) strength. The equipment is safe and simple; and the test is fast to perform, requiring only one exposed surface
Limitations Two limitations for the BO test equipment are worth noting: (1) the maximum aggregate size; and (2) the minimum member thickness for which it can be used. The maximum aggregate size is 19 mm (3/4 in.) and the minimum member thickness is 100 mm (4in.).
20 CE 612: Term Paper 2.5 The Maturity Method As is well known, the strength of a given concrete mixture, which has been properly placed, consolidated, and cured, is a function of its age and temperature history.
At early ages, temperature has a dramatic effect on strength development. This temperature dependence presents problems in trying to estimate the in-place strength based on strength development data obtained under standard laboratory conditions.
It was proposed that the measured temperature history during the curing period could be used to compute a single number that would be indicative of the concrete strength. This factor was termed as maturity, and the well-known maturity rule for estimating the strength of concrete was proposed . 21 CE 612: Term Paper
Basic Principle
The basic principle in applying the maturity method is illustrated in Figure 2.5.1. Two phases are involved: 1. Laboratory testing 2. Field measurement of the in-place temperature history
The laboratory testing must be performed before attempting to estimate in-place strength. Two types of laboratory tests may be required. One is used to establish the temperature sensitivity of the rate constant for the particular materials in the concrete.
The second type of testing establishes the strengthmaturity relationship for the concrete 22 CE 612: Term Paper Maturity Instruments The temperature history of the structure is the basic information needed to evaluate the in-place maturity index (expressed as the temperaturetime factor or equivalent age). Therefore, a device is needed to record temperature as a function of time.
FIGURE 2.5.1 Example of multichannel maturity meter using thermocouple wires to monitor in-place temperature. (Courtesy of American Engineering Testing, Inc.) 23 CE 612: Term Paper Gist of the method:
The maturity method was initially proposed as a means to estimate strength development of concrete during accelerated curing, such as steam or electric curing. The idea was subsequently extended to ordinary curing conditions.
The early work was empirical in nature. Recent work has attempted to establish a theoretical basis for the method and to explain the inherent approximations and limitations of the method.
In summary, the maturity method provides a simple procedure to account for the effects of temperature and time on strength development. In combination with other in-place strength tests discussed , the maturity method is playing an expanded role in advanced concrete technology.
24 CE 612: Term Paper 2.6 Pull-Off Test The pull-off test is based on the concept that the tensile force required to pull a metal disk, together with a layer of concrete, from the surface to which it is attached, is related to the compressive strength of the concrete.
One basic approach is where the metal disk is attached directly to the concrete surface and the stressed volume of concrete lies close to the face of the disk 25 CE 612: Term Paper Fig. 2.6.1: Schematic of the pull-off test Fig. 2.6.2: Example of compressive strength correlation for the pull-off test. The main advantage of the pull-off test is that it is simple and quick to perform. The entire process of preparing the surface and bonding the metal disk should take no more than 15 min. 26 CE 612: Term Paper 2.7 The Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Method:
The test instrument consists of a means of producing and introducing a wave pulse into the concrete (pulse generator and transmitter) and a means of sensing the arrival of the pulse (receiver) and accurately measuring the time taken by the pulse to travel through the concrete. 27 CE 612: Term Paper Uses of this method are listed as follows: Estimation of strength of concrete Establishing the homogeneity of concrete Studies on hydration of cement Studies on Durability of Concrete Measurement of Crack Depth
The test procedure is simple and the available equipment in the market is easy to use in the laboratory as well as in the field. 28 CE 612: Term Paper 2.8 Methods to Evaluate Corrosion of Reinforcement
The corrosion of ordinary steel is inevitable. Fortunately, steel in concrete develops a protective oxide film that provides a barrier to the transformation of the iron to rust. The presence of chloride ions breaks down the passive coating.
Basic information about two commonly used methods is provided below: 1. Half-cell potential 2. Concrete resistivity
29 CE 612: Term Paper Half Cell Potential Method The apparatus includes a coppercopper sulfate half-cell, connecting wires, and a high-impedance voltmeter. This half cell is composed of a copper bar immersed in a saturated copper sulfate solution. The positive terminal of the voltmeter is attached to the reinforcement and the negative terminal is attached to the coppercopper sulfate half cell.
The half-cell potential provides an assessment of the likelihood that there is active corrosion in the structure. It does not, by itself, provide information on the corrosion rate.
30 CE 612: Term Paper Concrete Resistivity The half-cell potential method provides an indication of the likelihood of corrosion activity at the time of measurement. It does not, however, furnish direct information on the rate of corrosion of the reinforcement.
After a bar loses its passivity, the corrosion rate depends on the availability of oxygen for the cathodic reaction.
Thus, a useful test in conjunction with a half-cell potential survey is the measurement of the resistivity of the concrete.
31 CE 612: Term Paper
A high resistivity indicates that, even though the steel is actively corroding as determined from the potential survey, the corrosion rate may be low.
32 CE 612: Term Paper 2.9 Rebar Locator Rebar Locator features a universal probe that allows you to measure both shallow and deep ranges at the push of a button. This gauge will locate, size and show bar orientation, as well as indicate concrete cover. 33 CE 612: Term Paper Summary Some of the test methods described here are based on fairly simple principles and are easy to carry out.
Regardless of which test is used, it is strongly recommended that interpretation of test results be performed by persons who are thoroughly familiar with the principles and limitations of the method. Interpretation should not be delegated to unqualified field technicians.
34 CE 612: Term Paper References V.M Malhotra and M.J Carino, Handbook on Non Destructive Testing of Concrete, Second Edition, ASTM (2004)
Jones, R., A review of the non-destructive testing of concrete, Proc. Symp. Non-destructive Testing of Concrete and Timber, Institution of Civil Engineers, London, June 1969.
Clifton, J.R., Non-Destructive Tests to Determine Concrete StrengthA Status Report, NBSIR 75-729, National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C.
Cold weather concreting, ACI 306R-88 (Reapproved 1997), Report by Committee 306, Manual of Concrete Practice, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI.
35 CE 612: Term Paper QUESTIONS !?! 36 CE 612: Term Paper