BIT20703 1

Signals
BIT20703 2
To be transmitted, data must be
transformed to electromagnetic
signals.
Note:
Note:
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Analog and Digital
Analog and Digital Data
Analog and Digital Signals
Periodic and Aperiodic Signals
4
Signals can be analog or digital.
Analog signals can have an infinite
number of values in a range; digital
signals can have only a limited
number of values.
Note:
Note:
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Comparison of analog and digital signals
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In data communication, we commonly
use periodic analog signals and
aperiodic digital signals.
Note:
Note:
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Analog Signals
Sine ave
Phase
!"amples of Sine aves
Time and #re$uency Domains
%omposite Signals
&andwidth
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A sine wave
Can you find out values for :
a. A!litude
". #$ase
%. &re'uen%y
of t$is sine (ave)
*
Amplitude
A!litude is norally easured in
volts.
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#re$uency and period are inverses of
each other.
Note:
Note:
&re'uen%y+f, - 1 . #eriod +T, or
#eriod +T, - 1 . &re'uen%y +f,
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Figure 3.4 Period and fre$uency
Te%$ni'ue for %al%ulatin/ +T, and +f,
1. C$e%0 t$e !eriod +T,
2. Cal%ulate t$e %o!lete %y%le in 1 se%ond
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'nits of periods and fre$uencies 'nits of periods and fre$uencies
Unit Equivalent Unit Equivalent
Seconds (s) 1 s hertz (Hz) 1 Hz
Milliseconds (ms) 1
!3
s "ilohertz (#Hz) 1
3
Hz
Microseconds (ms) 1
!$
s megahertz (MHz) 1
$
Hz
%anoseconds (ns) 1
!&
s gigahertz ('Hz) 1
&
Hz
(icoseconds ()s) 1
!1*
s terahertz (+Hz) 1
1*
Hz
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The bandwidth is a property of a
The bandwidth is a property of a
medium( It is the difference between
medium( It is the difference between
the highest and the lowest fre$uencies
the highest and the lowest fre$uencies
that the medium can
that the medium can
satisfactorily pass.
satisfactorily pass.

Note:
Note:
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The term bandwidth to refer to the property
The term bandwidth to refer to the property
of a medium or the width of a single
of a medium or the width of a single
spectrum or the range of fre$uencies that a
spectrum or the range of fre$uencies that a
medium can pass.
medium can pass.
It is the difference between the highest and
It is the difference between the highest and
the lowest fre$ that the medium can
the lowest fre$ that the medium can
satisfactorily pass
satisfactorily pass
.
.
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Figure 3.13 &andwidth
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Digital Signals
Digital Signals
&it Interval and &it )ate
As a %omposite Analog Signal
Through ide*&andwidth +edium
Through &and*,imited +edium
-ersus Analog &andwidth
.igher &it )ate
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A digital signal
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&it rate and bit interval
Bit Interval is t$e tie re'uired to send one
sin/le "it
Bit rate is t$e nu"er of "it intervals !er
se%ond+"!s,
Bit Interval - 1 . Bit 1ate
1*
Digital versus analog
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A digital signal is a composite signal
A digital signal is a composite signal
with an infinite bandwidth.
with an infinite bandwidth.
Note:
Note:
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&andwidth )e$uirement &andwidth )e$uirement
,it
-ate
Harmonic
1
Harmonics
1. 3
Harmonics
1. 3. /
Harmonics
1. 3. /. 0
1 #1)s / Hz * #Hz 4./ #Hz 2 #Hz
1 #1)s / #Hz * #Hz 4/ #Hz 2 #Hz
1 #1)s / #Hz * #Hz 4/ #Hz 2 #Hz
2
To i!rove t$e s$a!e of t$e si/nal for "etter
%ouni%ation3 !arti%ularly for $i/$ data rates3 (e need
to add soe $aroni%s.
2
Band(idt$ is !ro!ortional to t$e "it rate.
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The bit rate and the bandwidth are
The bit rate and the bandwidth are
proportional to each other.
proportional to each other.
Note:
Note:
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Analog versus Digital
Analog versus Digital
,ow*pass versus &and*pass
Digital Transmission
Analog Transmission
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,ow*pass and band*pass
4o(5!ass %$annel $as a "and(idt$ (it$ fre' of
"et(een 0 and f +used for 6i/ital Transission,
Band5!ass %$annel $as a "and(idt$ (it$ fre'
"et(een f1 and f2 +used for Analo/ transission,
BIT2073 . BIT20703 4e% 4 25
The analog bandwidth of a medium is
The analog bandwidth of a medium is
e"pressed in hert/; the digital
e"pressed in hert/; the digital
bandwidth, in bits per second.
bandwidth, in bits per second.
Note:
Note:
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Data Rate Limit
Data Rate Limit
0oiseless %hannel( 0y$uist &it )ate
&it rate 1 2 " &andwidth " log
2
,
where , 1 no. of signal level
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Data Rate Limit
Data Rate Limit
0oisy %hannel( Shannon %apacity

%apacity 1 &andwidth " log
2
34 5 S0)6
here S0) 1 signal*to*noise ratio
28


Data Rate Limit
Data Rate Limit
'sing &oth ,imits
In practice, we need to use both
methods to find what bandwidth and
what signal level we need.
2*


Transmission Impairment
Transmission Impairment
Attenuation
Distortion
0oise
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Impairment types
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Attenuation
Attenuation 7 loss of ener/y
6e%i"el 7 unit used "y 8n/ineer to s$o( t$at a si/nal
$as lost or /ained stren/t$
9e/ative value 7 si/nal is attenuated
#ositive value 7 si/nal is a!lified
dB - 10 lo/ 10 +#
2
. #
1
,
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Attenuation
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Distortion
6istortion 7 t$e si/nal %$an/es its for or s$a!e
34
0oise
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:everal ty!es of noise
T$eral noise 7 rando otion of ele%trons in
t$e (ire ($i%$ %reates an e;tra si/nal not
ori/inally sent "y t$e transitter
Indu%e noise 7 %oes fro sour%es su%$ as
otors and a!!lian%es
Crosstal0 7 t$e effe%t of one (ire on t$e ot$er
I!ulse noise 7 s si/nal (it$ $i/$ ener/y in a
very s$ort tie t$at %oes fro !o(er lines3
li/$tnin/3 et%.
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More About Signals
More About Signals
Throughput
7 how fast data can pass through an entity 3networ8 point6
Propagation Speed
* measures the distance a signal or a bit can travel through a medium in
one second
Propagation Time
-
measure the time re$uired for a signal 3or a bit6 to travel form one point
of the transmission medium to another
avelength
-
binds binds the period or the fre$uency of a simple sine wave to the
propagation speed of the medium
-
The wavelength is the distance a simple signal can travel in one period
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Throughput
Throughput
7 how fast data can pass through an entity 3networ8 point6
38
Propagation time
Propagation Speed
* measures the distance a signal or a bit can travel through a
medium in one second
3*
avelength
Propagation Time
-
measure the time re$uired for a signal 3or a bit6 to travel form one
point of the transmission medium to another
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Digital
Transmission
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Line Coding
,ine %oding Schemes
* Techni$ue to convert binary data to
digital data
Some 9ther Schemes
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,ine coding
Line Coding process of converting binary data (1s and 0s) to
digital signal
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Signal level versus data level
Signal Levels : +5 olts and 0 olt
!ata Level : 0 and 1
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Signal level versus data level
Signal Levels : +5 olts and 0 olt and 5 olts
!ata Level : 0 and 1
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,ine coding schemes
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'nipolar encoding
"nipolar #se only one polarity (positive)
$roble%s &it' "nipolar (ncoding:
-
!C Co%ponents ()ero fre*#ency)
- lac+ of sync'roni)ation
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Polar encoding uses two voltage levels
Polar encoding uses two voltage levels
3positive and negative6.
3positive and negative6.
Note:
Note:
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Types of polar encoding
Polar encoding uses two voltage levels 3positive and negative6. Polar encoding uses two voltage levels 3positive and negative6.
4*
In 0):*, the level of the signal is
In 0):*, the level of the signal is
dependent upon the state of the bit.
dependent upon the state of the bit.
Note:
Note:
$ositive , 0
Negative , 1
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In 0):*I the signal is In 0):*I the signal is inverted inverted if a 4 is encountered. if a 4 is encountered.
-ransition can be fro%:
.
positive to negative or
.
negative to positive
/e%e%ber : 0ero is not #sed at all for N/0 1
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Figure 4.2 0):*, and 0):*I encoding
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): encoding
Signal al&ays ret#rn to )ero at 2alf 3it (for sync'oni)ation)
4ne positive to )ero
0ero negative to )ero
"ses 5 val#es : positive6 )ero and negative
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A good encoded digital signal must
A good encoded digital signal must
contain a provision for
contain a provision for
synchroni/ation.
synchroni/ation.
Note:
Note:
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In +anchester encoding, the
In +anchester encoding, the
transition at the middle of the bit is
transition at the middle of the bit is
used for both synchroni/ation and bit
used for both synchroni/ation and bit
representation.
representation.
Note:
Note:
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+anchester encoding
"se inversion at t'e %iddle of eac' bit
interval for bot' sync'roni)ation and bit
representation
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In differential +anchester encoding,
In differential +anchester encoding,
the transition at the middle of the bit is
the transition at the middle of the bit is
used only for synchroni/ation.
used only for synchroni/ation.
The bit representation is defined by the
The bit representation is defined by the
inversion or non inversion at the
inversion or non inversion at the
beginning of the bit.
beginning of the bit.
Note:
Note:
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Differential +anchester encoding
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In bipolar encoding, we use three
In bipolar encoding, we use three
levels( positive, /ero,
levels( positive, /ero,
and negative.
and negative.
Note:
Note:
5*
&ipolar A+I encoding
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Two &inary and one $uaternary 32&4;6
7318 #ses fo#r voltage levels &'ere eac' p#lse
represent 7 bits
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+ultiline Transmission Three level +,T*< signal
ery si%ilar to N/0-9 b#t #ses 5 levels of signal
Signal transition at t'e beginning of bit 1 only: