OBJECTIVES:

1. Understand the combustion process.

2. Understand the classification of Fire.

3. Principle of fire extinguishment.

4. Understand fire extinguisher types,
operating procedures, capabilities and
limitations.



Fire, also known as combustion, is the process of rapid oxidation
at high temperatures. This releases hot gases, light, and invisible
forms of radiation energy.
Three elements are necessary for initiation of fire:
1. Fuel in the form of vapour, liquid or solid.
2. A source of ignition sufficient to initiate & propagate the fire.
3. Oxygen in sufficient proportion to form a combustible mixture.

FIRE
BASICS OF FIRE
Removal of any side of the triangle or breaking the chain
reaction between the transient chemical species formed
following ignition will extinguish a fire.
COOLING
SMOOTHERING
STARVATION
FIRE TRIANGLE FIRE TETRAHEDRON
BASICS OF FIRE
Combustion process is observed in two modes.

For flaming combustion to occur, solid or liquid fuel must be
converted into a vapour, which then mixes air and reacts with
oxygen.
Smoldering combustion, on the other hand, involves a reaction
between oxygen and the surface of the fuel: this is a complex
process and in general occurs with solid fuels which char on
heating.
BASICS OF FIRE
Fire extinguishment involves removal or limiting of one or
more of the factors described by the fire triangle.

The method of extinguishment of fire may be classified
under the following heads:
Principle of Extinguishment of Fire
Starvation : Elimination Of Fuel
Smothering : Limiting Oxygen Supply
Cooling : Limiting Rise Of Temp.
Chain Breaking : Limiting Chain Carriers
BASICS OF FIRE
Removal of Fuel

The removal of fuel is not always possible. However, in the
case of liquid fuel fires caused by leaking pipes or fittings,
the fuel supply should be closed.

It may also be possible to drain the fuel from a burning
tank.

It is particularly important to shut off the supply in a gas
fire. However, gas could also be left burning in a controlled
manner to exhaust itself.

In accommodation spaces, combustible materials should be
removed from the vicinity of fire, including any adjacent
compartment affected by the heat.
BASICS OF FIRE
Removal of Heat

A reduction in temperature is achieved by the use of a suitable
cooling medium, normally water, at a sufficient rate.

Cooling of boundary bulkheads will reduce the possibility of
igniting material outside the affected compartment.

Heat can also be absorbed by decomposition of dry powder.
The source of power should be cut off in electrical insulation.
BASICS OF FIRE
Removal of Oxygen

Except in those substances that contain their own oxygen, the
removal of sufficient oxygen will extinguish a fire.

In fire extinguishing operations, oxygen is extinguished by
smothering the fire with a layer of foam.

Oxygen is also cut off during the operation of portable and
semi portable carbon dioxide extinguishers and to some extent,
during he operation of dry powder extinguishers.

But for CO
2
and dry powder, the smothering action is
temporary and there is a possibility for re- ignition.
BASICS OF FIRE
The Fire Tetrahedron Model

Fire requires four elements in order to start and continue to
burn.

The forth element of fire is a self-sustaining chemical
reaction called "combustion" that produces continued heat
that serves to keep the fire burning.

To help illustrate that these four elements must occur
together in order for a fire to exist, the 4-sided pyramidal
shaped tetrahedron model was developed.

Remove any one of these elements from the fire tetrahedron
and the fire will not start or, if already burning, will be
extinguished.
BASICS OF FIRE
Breaking the Chain Reaction

A fire may be extinguished by breaking the chain reaction
between momentary chemical species (radicals) produced on
ignition (these species are described as 'transient' since they are
not present prior to ignition or in the final products of
combustion).
For instance, Halogenated hydrocarbons (Halons) and dry
powders attack the structure of the species and prevent their
reaction by killing the flame, sometimes in less than one
hundredth of a second.
The destruction takes place without any appreciable removal of
heat, fuel or oxygen.
However, the remaining three sides of the tetrahedron will still
be present and, unless the heat is removed, there is a danger
of re-ignition of the concentration of extinguishing agent is not
maintained.
BASICS OF FIRE
The term "free radical" or "radical" is used to mean an
atom or group in which one of the bonding orbitals is
occupied by a single electron. Radicals are normally
uncharged.
Free Radical Reaction during fire:
BASICS OF FIRE
Extinguishment Mechanism Of DCP

Sodium Bicarbonate: When DCP enters the combustion zone, it
decomposes by the heat of the flame to liberate water, water vapours
and carbon dioxide.
2 NaHCO3 ------- Na
2
CO3 + H2O + CO2
The sodium Carbonate further decomposes to give
Na
2
CO3 -------- Na
2
O + CO
Na
2
O --------- 2NaOH (in presence of H radicals)
Sodium Hydroxide produced during last step reacts with H & OH radicals
which are active in fire to give water vapours.
NaOH + H ------- Na + H2O
NaOH + OH ----- NaO + H2O
Also
NaO + H ------- NaOH
Na + OH ------- NaOH
This way all the H and OH radicals in fire are removed by breaking the chain
reaction and thus extinguish the fire.
BASICS OF FIRE
Different Fire Extinguishing Media:

Sand
Water
Dry Chemical Powder
Inert Gas
CO
2
Gas
Steam
AFFF (Aqueous Film Forming Foam)/ ARFFF
Clean Agent System (FM-200)
BASICS OF FIRE
Types of Fire Extinguishers
Water
The Water Extinguisher extinguishes the fire by cooling the
fuel below its ignition temperature.
Water is very effective cooling medium also easily available
everywhere.
The water extinguisher is very effective on A class fires but is
ineffective and dangerous on other classes of fire.
It must not be used on electrical fires as water is an excellent
conductor of electricity.

Carbon Dioxide
Carbon Dioxide (C0
2
) is a colourless, odourless, and tasteless
gas that is heavier than air and does not support life. It is not
a toxic gas.
The CO
2
extinguisher relies on its ability to displace or dilute
the Oxygen around the burning material smothering the fire.
BASICS OF FIRE


Dry Chemical Powder
The Dry Chemical Powder (DCP) fire extinguisher is probably
the most versatile extinguisher available today.
DCP extinguishers extinguish fires by smothering, and
interfering with the chemical chain reaction of burning. They
provide a rapid knockdown on a range of fires.
DCP mainly contains Potassium or Sodium Bicarbonate with
stabilizers.
Foam Fire Extinguisher
The Foam extinguisher is suitable for the extinguishments of
class B (flammable liquid) fires.
Foam provides a lasting blanket, which floats on
the burning fuel and smothers the fire.
In addition to its ability to extinguish fires, the foam
extinguisher can be used as a vapour suppression barrier over
spills of flammable liquids.
BASICS OF FIRE
Classes of fire:

Class A fires - are fires involving organic solids
(like paper, wood, coal, cloths, dry grass etc.)
Best Extinguishing media-water
Class B fires - are fires involving flammable Liquids
(like Petrol, diesel, kerosene, naphtha etc.)
Best Extinguishing media-foam, carbon dioxide, DCP
Class C fires - are fires involving flammable Gasses
(like LPG, CNG, NG, H2 gas etc.)
Extinguishing media - Carbon dioxide, DCP. The best
way to extinguish such fires is by stopping the flow of
fuel gas to fire. Container is kept cool with water spray.
Class D fires - Fires involving metals like magnesium, aluminum, zinc,
potassium etc. Where the burning metal is reactive to
water and which require special extinguishing media.
(like Na, K, Mg, Al etc.)
Extinguishing media- special dry powder.
BASICS OF FIRE
Classification of Fire
A Ordinary Combustible Material
C Flammable Gases
B Flammable Liquids
D Combustible
Metal
D
gasoline
oil
grease
tar
oil-based
paint
lacquer
flammable
gases
LPG
H
2
magnesium
sodium
potassium
titanium
zirconium
other
flammable
metals
wood
Cloth
Paper
Rubber
Many
plastics

BASICS OF FIRE
Electrical fire
Electrical fires are not treated as a class of their own, since
any fire involving, or started by, electrical equipment must, in
fact, fall into one of the other categories.
The normal procedure for dealing with an electrical fire is to
cut off electricity and use an extinguishing media appropriate
to what is burning.

BASICS OF FIRE
Common Fire Definitions:

Backdraft -- The beginning of a backdraft occurs from a fire in a
structure being poor presence of necessary oxygen. The fire smolders
giving off unburned carbon particles and other flammable products.
Then, suddenly the smoldering fire is given a sudden influx of oxygen
causing combustion to restart possibly at devastating speeds consistent
with an explosion.

Flash Point -- The minimum temperature at which a liquid fuel gives off
sufficient vapors to form an ignitable mixture with the air near the
surface. At this temperature, the ignited vapors will flash but will not
continue to burn.

Ignition Temperature -- The minimum temperature to which a fuel in
air must be heated to start self sustained combustion without a separate
ignition source.
BASICS OF FIRE
Explosive limits are those concentrations of a vapor or gas in air
below or above which propagation of a flame does not occur on
contact with a source of ignition.
The Lower Explosive Limit (LEL) is the minimum concentration
below which the vapor air mixture is too lean to burn or explode.
The Upper Explosive Limit (UEL) is the maximum concentration
above which the vapor air mixture is too rich to burn or explode.
Explosive limits
BASICS OF FIRE
BASICS OF FIRE
BASICS OF FIRE

Classification of Petroleum Products
Class a : liquid which have flash point below 23
o
c.
Class b : liquids which have flash point of 23
o
c and above but
below 65
o
c
Class c : liquid which have flash point of 65
o
c and above but
below 93
o
c.
Excluded petroleum : liquid which have flash point of 93
o
c and above.
LPG do not fall under this classification but form separate category.

BASICS OF FIRE
S.
NO.
MATERIAL AUTO IGNITION
TEMPERATURE oC
FLASH POINT
O
C EXPOSING RANGE VOLUME % IN
AIR LOWER LIMIT UPPER LIMIT
1 CRUDE OIL DEPENDS UPON
THE NATURE OF
CRUDE
19 DEPENDS UPON THE NATURE OF
CRUDE
LEL UEL
2. HYDROGEN 585 GAS 4.1 74.0
3 METHANE 538 GAS 5.0 15.0
4 ETHANE 514 GAS 3.0 12.5
5 PROPANE 466 GAS 2.4 9.5
6 BUTANE 430 GAS 1.5 9.0
7 BENZENE 563 -11 1.3 7.1
8 TOLUENE 536 4.5 1.2 7.2
9 NAPHTHA 288 -18 1.1 5.9
10 GASOLINE 245 -7 1.4 7.6
11 ATF 254.4 38 0.7 5
12 SKO 254 35 0.7 5
AUTO IGNITION, FLASH POINT AND EXPLOSIVE LIMITS OF SOME OF THE
PETROLEUM PRODUCTS
S.
NO.
MATERIAL AUTO IGNITION
TEMPERATURE
FLASH POINT
O
C
EXPOSING RANGE VOLUME
% IN AIR LOWER LIMIT
UPPER LIMIT
13 HSD 256 32 0.7 5
14 LDO - 66 - -
15 LSHS 316 66-166 - -
16 HSHS - 65.6-148.9 - -
17 FO 262-407 - - -
18 BITUMEN 485 205 - -
19 RAW COKE - 315.6 - -
20 PHENOL EXTRACT 715 80 - -
21 SLACK WAX 245 198.9 - -
22 MINERAL TURPENTINE
OIL
253.3 32.2 - -
23 LPG 405-450 GAS 1.8 9.6
AUTO IGNITION, FLASH POINT AND EXPLOSIVE LIMITS OF SOME OF
THE PETROLEUM PRODUCTS
MAJOR REFINERY POTENTIAL HAZARDS
FIRE HAZARD
EXPLOSION HAZARD
ELECTRICAL HAZARD
TOXIC GAS RELEASE HAZARD
HAZARDOUS CHEMICAL HAZARD
OIL SPILLAGE
RADIATION HAZARD
FALL FROM HEIGHT
SOURCE OF IGNITION
IT IS INITIAL RELEASE OF ENERGY TO TRIGGER COMBUSTION (FIRE). IT IS
NECESSARY TO UNDERSTAND THE SOURCES OF IGNITION AND TO ELIMINATE
THEM TO PREVENT FIRES/EXPLOSIONS IN OUR REFINERY.
SOURCES OF
IGNITION
EXAMPLE PREVENTIVE MEASURES
ELECTRICAL
EQUIPMENT
SPARKS FROM MOTORS,
SWITCHES, LAMPS, HOT
ELEMENTS AND
ELECTRICAL DEFECTS
1. USE OF APPROVED EQUIPMENT
2. FOLLOW NATION ELECTRICAL
CODES
3. PROPER MAINT.
FRICTION HOT BEARINGS, MIS-
ALLIGNED OR BROKEN
M/C PARTS, CHOCKING,
JAMMING OF MATERIAL,
POOR ADJUSTMENT
PREVENTIVE MAINT. AND PROPER
LUBRICATION
OPEN FLAMES CUTTING AND WELDING
TORCHES GAS & OIL
BURNERS
STRICT COMPLIANCE OF
PRECAUTIONS STIPULATED IN THE
FIRE PERMIT FOR HOT JOBS.
SOURCES OF
IGNITION
EXAMPLE PREVENTIVE MEASURES
SMOKING AS
IGNITION
SMOKING BOOTHS IN
AREA WHERE
COMBUSTIBLE ARE USED
1. SMOKING ONLY IN AREAS
PERMITTED.
2. USE OF PRESCRIBED
RECEPTACLES FOR CIGARETTE
BUTTS
SPONTANEOUS
IGNITION
PYROPHORIC IRON, HOT
OIL LEAKAGE
1. KEEP PYROPHORIC IRON WET ARE
THE TIME WHEN IT IS TAKEN OUT.
HOT SURFACES CONTACT OF
COMBUSTIBLE MATERIAL
WITHOUT SURFACES,
HEATED LINES
1. PROVIDE PROPER INSULATION
AND AIR CIRCULATION.
SPARK FROM
ENGHINE EXHAUST
POL TRUCKS / DG SET 1. SPARK ARRESTOR ON EXHAUST
SOURCE OF IGNITION
SOURCES OF
IGNITION
EXAMPLE PREVENTIVE MEASURES
STATIC ELECTRICITY DURING SPLASH
LOADING AND LOADING
AT HIGH VELOCITIES
1. PROPER EARTHING OF
EQUIPMENT.
2. DO NOT RESORT TO SPLASH
LOADING
3. LOADING VELOCITY SHOULD BE
CONTROLLED
LIGHTENING THUNDERSTORM CLOUD
BURST
1. PROPER LIGHTING ARRESTOR AND
EARTH CONTINUITY.
SOURCE OF IGNITION
FIRE RISK MANAGEMENT
Fire risk is The chance/possibility of loss due to fire.
Three aspects to deal with fire risk management are:
Fire Prevention
Fire Protection Active & Passive
Fire Fighting

FIRE PROTECTION IN GENERAL
FIRE PREVENTION :

IT MEANS ADOPTION OF SAFE INHERENT DESIGN AND PROVISIONS AT THE
DESIGN STAGE INITIALLY AND SUBSEQUENTLY DEVELOPING SAFE PROCEDURE
TO FOLLOW IN THE DAY TO DAY OPERATION. IT IS THE CONCERN OF
EVERYBODY WORKING IN THE REFINERY.

FIRE PROTECTION :

IT INVOLVES OF DIFFERENT FACILITIES WHICH SHALL HELP IN IMMEDIATE
HANDLING OF FIRE EFFECTIVELY.

FIRE FIGHTING :

IT IS THE PHYSICAL PHENOMENON OF HANDLING THE FIRE WITH THE USE OF
FIRE PROTECTION EQUIPMENTS, FACILITIES AS WELL AS WITH THE HELP OF
FIRE FIGHTING PERSONNEL WHO HAVE BEEN SPECIFICALLY TRAINED FOR
THIS JOB.


Fire Prevention

Objective : to eliminate the occurrence of fire

1. Fire or naked light, matches, petrol or other lighters, cellular
phone or any apparatus which is capable of causing ignition is
not permitted to be taken within the battery area by any person.
2. No fires shall be lit and no matches ignited in any part of the
battery area unless a valid hot work permit has been obtained
from the authorized fire permit signatories of the area and
registered at the fire station.
3. Smoking is prohibited in all parts of the battery area except in
the smoking booths/locations duly approved for this purpose.
4. Cycle lamps, other than dynamo operated , are not allowed in the
refinery battery limits. The cyclist will switch off even the
dynamo as soon as he enters the plant area.
FIRE RISK MANAGEMENT


5. Ordinary torches will not be used within the battery area. Flame
proof torches/lamps of approved manufacturers as supplied by
the refinery, shall only be used.
6. All vehicles entering / transporting petroleum products from the
refinery must be fitted only with approved type of spark
arrestors.

Fire protection (Passive & Active)
Following fire protection facilities shall be provided depending on
the nature of the installation and risk involved:
Fire water system
Foam system
Clean agent system
CO
2
system
DCP extinguishing system
Detection and alarm system
Communication system
Passive fire protection system (at the time of construction & installation)

Dyke walls
Safety valves on equipment
Water seal in separators
Rupture disc in process piping
Fire proofing of structures
Fire retardants paints on cables
Fire barriers
Positive pressurization
Flaring / venting


Fire fighting
Objective : to extinguish the fire with minimum loss
It is the last line of the defense. It comes into force when there
is actual fire. Main purpose is to extinguish the fire with
suitable equipment and materials with an aim to reduce damage
due to fire
Portable fire fighting equipment
Mobile fire fighting equipment
Fixed fire fighting system
Active Fire Protection
Fire fighting

Portable fire fighting equipment (First Aid Fire Fighting Equipment)
DCP Extinguishers.
CO2 extinguishers.
Water Extinguishers
Portable Foam Extinguishers.
Clean Agent Fire Extinguishers
Fire fighting
Mobile fire fighting equipment
Foam tenders
DCP tenders
Foam Nurser
Hydraulic Platform- 54 m height
Trailer fire pump
Trolley mounted monitors
Fire fighting hose & other accessories like foam branch,
nozzles etc.
Fire fighting chemicals like foam compound, dry chemical
powder etc.
Fire fighting
Fixed fire fighting equipment
Fire Hydrants
Fire Monitors.
High Volume Long Range Monitors.
Riser
Sprinkler Systems
Foam Pourer Systems
DCP Extinguishers
Operating Mechanism Of DCP
Class A, B, or C fires.

2-10 Kg. dry chemical (ammonium
phosphate) pressurized to 3.5 14
kg/ sq. cm by CO2 gas (8-25 seconds
discharge time).

Has pressure gauge to allow visual
capacity check.

1.5 6 m. maximum effective range.

Extinguishes by smothering burning
materials.
Dry Chemical Powder
B Liquids Grease
A Trash Wood Paper
C Gases
Class B or C fires.
2 / 4.5 / 6.8 / 9 / 22.5 kg CO2 gas at
51 Kg/cm2.
Has NO pressure gauge. Capacity
verified by weight.
3-8 ft. maximum effective range.
Extinguishes by smothering burning
materials.
Effectiveness decreases as
temperature of burning material
increases.
Carbon Dioxide (CO
2
)
B Liquids Grease
A Trash Wood Paper
C Gases
Suitable for Electrical Fire
(1)Squeeze
the nozzle
(2) Remove
Safety Clip
(3) Strike
on top of
the cap
(4) Direct the
discharge
nozzle at the
base of Fire in
sweeping
action
Method of Operation of DCP Fire Extinguishers (10 Kg)
(1)Hold the horn
towards Fire
(2) Remove
Safety Pin
(3)Rotate knob in
anti clock wise.
Caution: On initial
discharge of CO2 it
may give electric
shock momentarily .
Dont get panic.
Open the operating
knob intermittently.
Method of Operation of CO2 Fire Extinguisher
Precaution at the time of Fire Fighting
Extinguishing agent eliminates one of the vital elements of the
fire
Many types of extinguishers available
Know location of extinguishers
Alarm has been sounded
Building has been evacuated
Fire is small and confined
You can fight the fire with your back toward an escape route
The extinguisher matches the fire type
The extinguisher works effectively
You are properly trained in the use of the extinguisher
You are confident you can put the fire out


Personal hazards
Smoke and noxious fumes

Smoke and fumes cause unconsciousness

Burn