QFD was developed in Japan in the late 1960s by

Professors Shigeru Mizuno and Yoji Akao.

At the time, statistical quality control, which was
introduced after World War II, had taken roots in the
Japanese manufacturing industry.

Why use QFD?
To improve the communication of customer wants
throughout the organization.

To improve the completeness of specifications and
to make them traceable directly to customer wants
and needs.
Quality Function Deployment (QFD) is a systematic process
for motivating a business to focus on its customers.
Quality Function Deployment (QFD) is the latest approach to
product design. It focuses on the voice of the customer
i.e., customer expectations or requirements why QFD is
sometimes called as customer driven engineering.
The QFD translates this voice of the customer into
technical and functional requirements at every stage of design
and manufacture.
Thus in QFD, the requirements of the customers are deployed
to the desired function, Which in turn, is used to yield the
engineering characteristics of the product.
Definition:
Quality Function Deployment may be defined as
a system for translating consumer requirements
into appropriate requirements at every stage, from
research through product design and development,
to manufacture, distribution, installation and
marketing, sales and service.

Objectives:
To identify the true voice of the customer and
to satisfy them.
To help in the organization and analysis of all the
pertinent information.

Voice of the Customer:
QFD begins with marketing to determine what
exactly the customer desires .
Type of Customer Information:

Solicited
Quantitative
Structured
Focus group
Complaints Reports
Organizational
standards
Govt Regulations
Hot lines
Surveys
Customer tests
Product purchase survey. Etc..
Un Solicited
Qualitative
Random
Sales force
Training programme
Trade journals
Trade shows
Vendors. Etc..

Trade visits
Customer
visits
Consultants
The primary planning tool used in QFD is the House of
Quality (HOQ). The HOQ converts the voice of the
customer into product design characteristics. QFD uses a
series of matrix diagrams, also called, quality tables.

Basic Structure of House of Quality

Section I: Customer Requirements
The exterior walls of the house are the customer
requirement. On the left hand side, the voice of the
customer .

Section II : Prioritized Customer Requirements
On the right hand side, the prioritized customer
requirements or planning matrix .Some include customer
benchmarking, customer importance rating, target value,
scale-up factor, and sales point.

Section III : Technical Descriptors
The second floor contains the technical descriptors. Product
design characteristics, expressed in engineering terms, are
located.

Section IV : Relationship Matrix
The interior walls of the house are the relationships between
customer requirements and technical descriptors. This
relationship matrix correlates customer requirements with
product characteristics.

Section V : Trade-off Matrix
The roof of the house is the interrelationship between
technical descriptors. Trade-offs between similar and / or
conflicting technical descriptors are identified.

Section VI : Prioritized Technical Descriptors
The foundation of the house is the prioritized technical
descriptors. Some includes the technical benchmarking,
degree of technical difficulty, and target value.


Step 1. List Customer Requirements (WHATs)
Define the customer and establish full customer wants and dislikes.
Measure the priority of these wants and dislikes using weighing scores.
Summaries these into a small number of major (primary) wants,
supported by secondary and tertiary wants.
Step 2. List Technical Descriptors (HOWs)
Translate the identified customer wants into design
characteristics and express them in terms of quantifiable technical
parameters
Step 3. Develop a Relationship Matrix Between WHATs and HOWs
Investigate the relationships between the customers expectations
(WHATs) and the technical descriptors (HOWs)
Categorize it as strong, medium or weak (or by assigning scores).
Step 4. Develop an Interrelationship Matrix Between Hows
Identify any interrelationships between each of the technical
descriptors.
These relationships are marked in the correlation matrix by either
positive or negative.
Step 5. Competitive Assessments
Compare the performance of the product with that of
competitive products.
Evaluate the product and note the strong and weak points
of the product against its competitors product .
This competitive assessment tables include customer
assessment and technical assessment.
Step 6. Develop Prioritized Customer Requirements
Develop the prioritized customer requirements
corresponding to each customer requirement .
These prioritized customer requirements contain columns for
importance to customer, target value, scale-up factor, sales point,
and an absolute weight.
Step 7. Develop Prioritized Technical Descriptors
Develop the prioritized technical descriptors corresponding
to each technical descriptor.
These prioritized technical descriptors include degree of
technical difficulty, target value, and absolute and relative
weights.
Product
Planning
Part
Development
Process
Planning
Production
Planning
Design
Requirements
Customer
requirements
Part
Characteristics
Design
Requirements

Production
requirements
Manufacturing
operations
Manufacturing
operations
Part
characteristics
1. Improves customer satisfaction
2. Reduces implementation time
3. Promotes team work
4. Provides documentation
Currently many U.S. and Japan companies are
using QFD.

In the automobile industry, Ford, Chrysler, and
General Motors, are users of QFD.

In the electronics field, Digital Equipment
Corporation and Texas instruments have been
QFD pioneers.

Numerous other companies use QFD
including : Procter & Gamble, Deere &
Company, The Kendall Company, Polaroid,
Rockwell International, Hughes Aircraft, and
Hewlett-Packard.
INTRODUCTION:
Failure Mode Effect Analysis is an analytical technique
that goes in for combining Technology and Experience of
people to identify foreseen failures in a product or process
and planning to eliminate the Failure. Failure Mode and
Effect Analysis (FMEA) , also known as risk analysis, is a
preventive measure to systematically display the causes,
effects, and possible actions regarding observed failures.
The objective of FMEA is to anticipate failures and
prevent them from occurring . FMEA Priorities failures and
attempts to eliminate their causes. FMEA is engineering
technique used to define, identify the eliminate known and /
or potential failures , problems, errors which occur in the
system, design, process and service before they reach the
customer.
DEFINITION :
FMEA is a group of activities to understand
and evaluate potential failure of product or process and its effects,
and identify actions that eliminate or reduce the potential failures.

Types of FMEA:
Major Classification
Design FMEA
Process FMEA
DESIGN FMEA:
Design FMEA use in the design process by identifying known
and foreseeable failures modes and ranking failures according to
their impact on the product.

PROCESS FMEA:
It is used to identify potential process failure modes by
ranking failures and establishing priorities, and its impact on the
Internal or external customers.
1. System FMEA Analyzes components, subsystem and
main system in early stage of design.
2. Design FMEA Analyzes the products / parts before
they are released to manufacturing.
3. Process FMEA Focuses on manufacturing and assembly
processes.
4. Service FMEA Analyzes service industry processes before
they are released to impact the customer.
5. Equipment FMEA .
6. Maintenance FMEA
7. Concept FMEA.
8. Environmental FMEA.
Stage 1. Specifying Possibilities
(i) Functions
(ii) Possible failure modes
(iii) Root causes
(iv) Effects
(v) Detection / prevention
Stage 2. Quantifying Risk
(i) Probability of cause
(ii) Severity of effect
(iii) Effectiveness of control to prevent cause
(iv) Risk priority number (RPN)
Stage 3. Correcting High Risk Causes
(i) Prioritizing work
(ii) Detailing action
(iii) Assigning action responsibility
(iv) Check points on completion
Stage 4. Re evaluation of Risk
(i) Recalculation of risk priority number

1.Describe the product / process and its function.
2. Create a block diagram of the product / process :
The block diagram shows the logical relationships of components and
establishes a structure around which the FMEA can be developed.
3. Complete the header of the FMEA form worksheet :
Items, Design / Process responsibility , Prepared by, Model number /
Year, Key date, Core team, and Revision date. Modify these headings as needed.
4. List product / process functions.
5. Identify failure modes:
A failure mode is defined as the manner in which a component, subsystem,
system, process, etc., could potentially fail to meet the design purpose.
Examples of potential failure modes include : Corrosion, torque,
fatigue, deformation, cracking, electrical short or open, and hydrogen
embrittlement.
6. Describe the potential failure effects :
For each failure mode identified the engineer should determine what the
ultimate effect will be. A failure effect is defined as the result of a failure
mode on the function of the product .
Examples of failure effects include : Injury to the user, impaired operation,
poor appearance, and degraded performance.
7. Establish a numerical ranking for the severity (S) of the
effect :
Severity (S) is the assessment of the seriousness of the
failure effect. A common industry standard scale uses 1 to
represent no effect and 10 to indicate very serious effect. This
numerical ranking enables the engineer to prioritize the
failures and address the real big issues first.
8. The CLASS column is used to classify any special
product characteristics for components, sub-systems, or
systems that may require additional process controls.
9. Identify the potential causes / mechanisms of failure:
A failure cause is defined as a design weakness that may
result in a failure. The potential causes for each failure mode
should be identified and documented. The causes should be
listed in technical terms and not in terms of symptoms.
Examples of potential causes include : Improper torque
applied, operating conditions, excessive loading, and excessive
voltage.
10. Enter the probability factor :
Occurrence (O) is the chance that one of the specific causes /
mechanisms will occur. A numerical weight should be assigned
to each cause that indicates how likely that cause is. A common
industry standard scale uses 1 to represent not likely and 10 to
indicate inevitable.

11.Identify current controls (design or process) :
Current controls are the mechanisms that prevent the cause of the failure
mode from occurring. These controls may be supported through test, mathematical
studies, etc..
12. Determine the likelihood of detection (D):
Detection (D) is an assessment of the likelihood that the current controls
will detect the cause of the failure mode. The likelihood of detection is also based on
a 1 to 10 scale, with 1 being the certain of detection and 10 being the absolute
uncertainty of detection.
13. Review Risk Priority Number (RPN):
The Risk Priority Number (RPN) is defined as the product of the
severity(S), occurrence(O) and detection(D) rankings.
RPN = (S) x (O) x (D)
14. Determine recommended action(s):
Determine recommended action(s) to address potential failures that have a
high RPN. These actions many include specific inspection, testing, de-rating, selection of
parts and materials, redesign of the items, monitoring mechanisms, and performing
preventive maintenance.
15. Assign responsibility and a target completion date for these
actions. This makes responsibility clear-cut and facilitates tracking.
16. Indicate actions taken :
After these actions have been taken, re-assess the severity, occurrence
and detection and review the revised RPNs.
17.Update the FMEA as the design or process changes, the assessment
changes or new information becomes known.
Improve product / process reliability and quality.
Increase customer satisfaction.
Early identification and elimination of potential product /
process failure modes.
Prioritize product / process deficiencies.
Capture engineering / organization knowledge.
Document and track the actions taken to reduce risk.
Provide focus for improved testing and development.
Minimize late changes and associated cost.
Act as catalyst for teamwork and idea exchange between
functions.
Proces
s
Potential
Failure
Mode
Potential
Effect
(s) of
Failure
S
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Potential
Cause(s)
of
Failure
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R
P
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Recommen
ded
Action
Responsibility
and
Target
Completion
Date
Actio
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Take
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R
P
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1. Check Sheets
2. Histograms
3. Cause and Effect Diagrams
4. Pareto Diagrams
5. Stratification Analysis
6. Scatter Diagrams
7. Control Charts
A check sheet also known as tally sheet, is
a form for systematic data gathering and
registering to get a clear view of the facts.
It is used to keep a track of how often
something happens.
The form of the check sheet is tailored for
each situation/application.
A check list is used to indicate the frequency
of a certain occurrence.
Construction Process:
1. Formulate the objective for collecting data.
2. Decide which data is necessary.
3. Determine who and how data will be analyzed.
4. Draw a format to record data.
5. Collect and record data problem-wise by
putting tally lines.
6. Start counting by tallying on the list : I II III
represent the numbers 1, 2, 3..
7. Mark on the list the total number of facts,
which were noticed.
Process distribution Check sheet
Defective item check sheet
Defect location check sheet
Defect factor check sheet.
A Histogram is a bar chart /diagram showing a
distribution of variable quantities or
characteristics.
It is a graphical display of the frequency
distribution of the numerical data.


It is used to show clearly where the most
frequently occurring values are located and the
data is distributed.
It is also a tool for determining the maximum
process results.
1. After the data collection, count the number of
data values collected.
2. Determine the range of the data.
3. Divide the data values in groups or classes.
4. Now determine the width of the class.
Width = Range/ No. of Classes selected.
5. Draw a frequency table for all values.
6. Construct a histogram based on the
frequency table. Mark class limits on
horizontal and frequency on vertical axis.
7. Finally write the title and number of values on
the diagram.
Normal. A common pattern is the
bell-shaped curve known as the
normal distribution. In a normal
distribution, points are as likely to
occur on one side of the average as
on the other.

Skewed. The skewed distribution
is asymmetrical because a natural
limit prevents outcomes on one side.
The distributions peak is off center
toward the limit and a tail stretches
away from it.

Double-peaked or bimodal. The
bimodal distribution looks like the
back of a two-humped camel. The
outcomes of two processes with different
distributions are combined in one
set of data. A two-shift operation
might be bimodal.

Plateau. The plateau might be
called a multimodal distribution.
Several processes with normal
distributions are combined. Because
there are many peaks close together,
the top of the distribution resembles
a plateau.

DESCRIPTION
The fishbone diagram identifies many
possible causes for an effect or problem. It
can be used to structure a brainstorming
session. It immediately sorts ideas into
useful categories.
WHEN TO USE
When identifying possible causes for a
problem.
Especially when a teams thinking tends to
fall into ruts.

MATERISLS REQUIRED: Flipchart (or) White Board, Marking
Pens.

Agree on a problem statement (effect). Write it at the
center right of the flipchart or whiteboard. Draw a box
around it and draw a horizontal arrow running to it.

Brainstorm the major categories of causes of the
problem. If this is difficult use generic headings:
Methods
Machines (equipment)
People (manpower)
Materials
Measurement
Environment


Write the categories of causes as branches from
the main arrow.

Brainstorm all the possible causes of the problem.
Ask: Why does this happen? As each idea is
given, the facilitator writes it as a branch from the
appropriate category. Causes can be written in
several places if they relate to several categories.

Again ask why does this happen? about each
cause. Write sub-causes branching off the causes.
Continue to ask Why? and generate deeper
levels of causes. Layers of branches indicate
causal relationships.

When the group runs out of ideas, focus attention
to places on the chart where ideas are few.
A Pareto chart is a bar graph. The lengths of the bars
represent frequency or cost (time or money), and are
arranged with longest bars on the left and the shortest to
the right.
When to Use
o When analyzing data about the frequency of
problems or causes in a process.
o When there are many problems or causes and you want
to focus on the most significant.
o When analyzing broad causes by looking at their specific
components.
o When communicating with others about your data.

To identify the VITAL FEW FROM TRIVIAL MANY and
to concentrate on the vital few for improvement.
A Pareto diagram indicates which problem we should
solve first in eliminating defects and improving the
operation.

The Pareto 80 / 20 rule
80 % of the problems are produced by 20 %
of the causes.
A Scatter diagram is a simple graphical device to
depict the relationship between two variables.
It is composed of a horizontal axis containing the
measured values of one variable (independent, i.e.,
cause) and a vertical axis, representing the
measurements of the variable (dependent, i.e.,
effect).
This diagram displays the paired data as a cloud of
points. The density and direction of the cloud indicate
how the two variables influence each other.
Although this diagram cannot prove that one variable
causes the other, but they do indicate the existence
of relationship as well as the strength of it.

Stratification is a method of analysis of data by
grouping it in different ways.
Stratification means sub-grouping the data on
the basis of certain characteristics. These
stratified data are used for identifying the
influencing factors.
Machines, suppliers, operators, tools, gauges or
time dependent sources like shifts, pre-post
lunch, start and end of shifts, etc., are strata
with respect to which the study of variations is
conducted for diagnosis and possible
control/prevention of variations.
1. Collect data about any problem in
product/defects, etc.
2. Consider potentially significant way of
grouping data (stratification) on basis of
factors experienced.
3. Repeat data through graphic manner
reflecting stratification
4. Analyse results and try new grouping, if
necessary, to get insight into the problem
and make evident the correlation.
1. Affinity (KJ) Diagram.
2. Relationship Diagram.
3. Tree Diagram.
4. Matrix Diagram.
5. Decision Tree (PDPC).
6. Arrow Diagram (PERT).
7. Matrix data Analysis.
An Affinity diagram is a tool to collect a large amount of
verbal expressions (ideas, opinions, observations, etc.) and
organize them in groups according to natural relationships
between individual items.
This diagram is also referred to as a KJ diagram, after its
inventor Jiro Kawakita.
Affinity diagram is a special kind of brainstorming tool.
WHEN TO USE
To provide a visual representation of large amount of ideas.
To determine logical priorities.
To extract the large amount of useful information from few or
scattered data, or from unrelated ideas.
To understand and organize problems that are not clear.
To create new concepts.
Identify the problem and phrase it without
biases.
Brainstorm ideas and opinions, individually
and record on the cards.
Sort cards into groups and discard those
with no affinity.
Label the groups and organize the cards
under them to form chart.
Analyze the results and plan action-points.
The relationship diagram is a tool for finding causes to a
problem.
The relationship diagram not only clarifies the
relationship between cause and effect but also between
the various causes.
It is a graphical representation of all factors in a
complicated problem, system or situation.

When to use
This diagram is used to generate a visual representation
of the relations between an effect and its causes as well
as the inter relationship between the different causes of
the problem.

This tool can also used to i. identify key problem from a
list of problems; ii. Identify the root cause of existing
problems; and iii. Identify key factors needed to make a
decision.
Identify and decide the effect of the problem.
Write it in the centre of the board and enclose it
in a dark bordered rectangle.
Conduct brainstorming to identify the immediate
causes of effect. Note down these causes in
rectangle around the centre dark rectangle.
Connect these immediate causes to the effect
by connecting the rectangles of the causes to
that of the effect with a line. Te line has an arrow
pointing towards the effect.
The element of the rectangle with the most
outgoing arrows will indicate the root causes.
Those one with the most incoming arrows will
be key outcomes or results.

A Tree diagram systematically breaks down a topic
into its components elements, and shows the
logical and sequential links between these
elements.
It systematically outlines the complete spectrum of
paths and tasks that must be carried out to achieve
a goal.

WHEN TO USE

To explore the ways and means to achieve the
objective, develop a list of alternative means and to
present them in visual understandable form.
State the problem to be studied.
Brainstorm all possible causes or methods of
addressing the problem.
Identify and list the primary, secondary and
tertiary means from brainstorm.
Arrange and rearrange the elements in
proper order in boxes.
A Matrix diagram is a tool that is used to
systematically organize information that must
be compared on a variety of characteristics in
order to make a comparison, selection or
choice.
It depicts the relations between two sets of
factors in the form of a table or a matrix.
It is the starting point in building a House of
Quality.
WHEN TO USE

To show relations between individual items in
two sets of factors.
First decide on the two sets of factors to be
compared.
Place the main factors vertically on the left
hand side of the matrix and the dependent
factors horizontally on top of the matrix.
In the main body of the matrix, place
appropriate symbols at the intersecting
square boxes denoting the relationship
between the two factors.
Now score relationships and select most
important relationship for analysis.
It is a planning tool to outline every conceivable
and likely occurrence in any planning.
It forces proactive thinking on what can go wrong
with ones plan and what would one do to
overcome the effect of such adverse occurrences.
WHEN TO USE
When one wants to plan all possible chains of
events that might occur during a project.
Used in new product development, data
processing programs.
Widely used in decision making when task is
unique, new and complex.
Prepare a normal flow chart of the process
with all expected events as steps in the chart.
Identify the various possibilities of the process
not going as per the plan due to any abnormal
occurrences.
Write these occurrences on the flow chart
through branching at appropriate locations.
Now identify the ways and means to counter
the effect due to abnormal occurrences.
Write these counter-measures in rectangles
connecting the corresponding abnormal
occurrence on one side and the process
objective on the other.
o An arrow diagram is a graphic description of the
sequential steps that must be completed before
a project can be completed.
o The PERT and CPM charts are the best known
arrow diagrams.

WHEN TO USE
o To show the paths to complete a project.
o To find the shortest time possible.
o To display graphically simultaneous activities.
o Arrow diagram is indispensable for long-term
projects, such as the construction of a plant.
o Identify and list each activity to be done in
the project.
o Determine the sequence of activities.
o Construct a network reflecting the
precedence relationships.
o Write the activity time under arrow leading
from it.
A matrix data analysis diagram is very much similar
to a matrix diagram with a difference that numerical
data is used instead of symbols indicating the
existence and strength of relationship.

WHEN TO USE
To present numerical data about two sets of factors
in a matrix form and analyse it to get numerical
output.
In studying the parameters of production processes,
in analyzing market information, in finding links
between numerical and non-numerical variables and
so on.
Decide the two factors whose relations are
to be analyzed.
Check the number of individual items in the
two factors.
Prepare a matrix to accommodate all items
of the two factors.
Enter numerical data in the matrix.
Analyze the final results.
American Productivity and Quality Centre has defined
the benchmarking as the process of identifying,
understanding and adapting outstanding practices and
processes from organizations anywhere in the world to
an organization to improve its performance.

OBJECTIVES OF BENCHMARKING

1. Aims at goal setting process to facilitate comparison
with the best.
2. Aims at motivating and stimulating company
employees towards the goal of continuous quality
improvement.
3. Aims at identifying a technological breakthrough.
4. Aims at searching for industry best practices.
Classification on the basis of Object to be
Benchmarked.
1. Product Benchmarking.
2. Performance Benchmarking.
3. Process Benchmarking.
4. Strategic Benchmarking.
Classification on basis of Organizations against
whom one is Benchmarking:
1. Internal Benchmarking.
2. Industry Benchmarking.
3. Competitive Benchmarking.
4. Best-in-class Benchmarking.
5. Relationship Benchmarking.
Twelve steps in Benchmarking proposed by
Robert C. Camp
Phase I: Planning
Step 1: What can be benchmarked? (deciding
what to be benchmark)
Step 2: Identify the best competitors.
Step 3: Determine the data collection method
and collect data.
Phase II: Analysis
Step 4: Determine the current Performance
gap.
Step 5: Project future performance levels.


INTRODUCTION:
POKA YOKE means fail-safing or mistake-
proofing. It is an mechanism used to mistake proof
an entire process. It ensures that proper conditions
exist before actually executing a process step,
preventing defects from occurring in the first place.

WHEN TO USE IT?
Processing error
Setup error
Missing part
Improper part/item
Operations error
Measurement error
1. Prevention based PokaYoke
Control method
Warning method

2. Detection based PokaYoke
Contact method
Fixed value method
Motion step method

1. Identify the process or operations
2. Analyze
3. Decide the right PY
4. Determine
5. Trial the method and see if it works
6. Train the operator and review

Benefits of PokaYoke:
Improved productivity
Reduced inspection time
PY is the fastest way to Zero defects
It acts as a key enabler for efficient manufacturing
It virtually eliminates scrap, rework, and repair
The cost of quality control using mistake-proofing is
substantially less expensive than traditional alternatives
Minimized inventory
Increased customer satisfaction and customer loyalty