Entropy

The amount of disorder or randomness in the universe.

Without the input of energy from outside the system, all systems are
spontaneously moving closer to equilibrium at all times.
Uphill Struggle For Living Things
Living things must do
biological work to keep
the forces of the
universe from
dismantling their highly
ordered bodies.
To do this, organisms
need a constant supply
of energy.
Autotrophs and
heterotrophs either
produce or obtain
energy to overcome
this struggle.
Animal Respiration, Like Fire, Is Oxidation
Joseph Priestly

Championed the idea
of phlogistron
Phlogistron is the
substance that
flowed into the air
when substances
were burned.
Animal Respiration, Like Fire, Is Oxidation
Antoine Laurent Lavoisier
Disproved theory of phlogistron.
Hypothesized if burning substance releases phlogistron,
then as the substance burns, its weight should
decrease.
Found the total weight had increased.
He reasoned burning doesnt add something to the
air, it takes something out of the air.
First to recognize fire and breathing both require
oxygen.

Animal Respiration, Like Fire, Is Oxidation
Types of energy:

Kinetic
Energy that is doing
work

Potential
Stored or inactive
energy
Metabolism is Efficient and Highly Specific
Cant burn glucose as
you would wood.
Need the process to
be controlled to
minimize the energy
loss (entropy).
Also need it to be
specific.
Need enzymes.
Metabolism is Efficient and Highly Specific
Enzymes

A class of proteins that catalyze, or speed up, the
steps of metabolism

Cannot force a reaction to go in a direction that is
not consistent with the laws of thermodynamics

How Do Enzymes Work?
They overcome the
activation energy.

Barrier that prevents
molecules from
undergoing otherwise
favorable reactions
Hallmarks of Enzyme-Catalyzed Reactions
Metabolic efficiency:

Cellular metabolism is characterized by metabolic
pathways.
Sequences of enzyme-catalyzed reactions in which
the product of one reaction serves as the reactant for
the next.
Hallmarks of Enzyme-Catalyzed Reactions
Metabolic specificity

A given enzyme only
binds to a specific kind
of molecule, called its
substrate
Metabolic Specificity
ATP: Energy Currency of Life
Adenosine
Triphosphate:
Assembled by energy-
yielding metabolic
pathways.
Used to drive energy-
consuming pathways.
A nucleotide.
Other Nucleotide-Based Compounds Shuttle
Hydrogen
These molecules
shuttle hydrogen
atoms from one place
to another and from
one compound to
another.
NAD
+
/NADH,
NAD
+
/FADH
2
,
NADP
+
/ NADPH
Play central role in
metabolism.



How Do Organisms Use Energy?
Cellular Respiration
Metabolic pathways in
which cells harvest the
energy from the
metabolism of food
molecules
Occurs in three stages
Glycolysis
Krebs Cycle
Electron Transport Chain

Glycolysis
Occurs in the cytoplasm
Net reaction:

C
6
H
12
O
6

Glucose
2 C
3
H
16
O
3

Pyruvic Acid
2 ADP 2 ATP
2 NADH 2 NAD
+

When Oxygen is Limited
Two problems with anaerobic cellular
respiration:
2 ATPs / glucose molecule will not sustain activity
for long periods.
In the absence of oxygen, glycolysis converts all of
the limited NAD
+
to NADH.
With no more available NAD
+
, glycolysis ceases.

Lactic Acid Fermentation
H atoms are removed
from NADH and
added to pyruvic acid
forming lactic acid.
Regenerates NAD
+
in
order for glycolysis to
continue
With Oxygen Present
Transitional step before Krebs Cycle:
Accomplishes 3 things
1. Hydrogen atoms removed from pyruvic acid and
added to NAD
+
making NADH
2. Carbon atom is removed from pyruvic acid and
lost as CO
2
3. Resulting two-carbon molecule is attached to
carrier molecule (coenzyme A) forming acetyl-CoA
Performed by large enzyme in the in mitochondria
Krebs Cycle
Occurs in
mitochondria:
Entering cycle:
1 acetyl-CoA, 3 NAD
+
, 1
FAD, 1ADP + P
i

Exiting the cycle:
3 NADH, 1 FADH
2
, 1 ATP,
2 CO
2

Electron Transport Chain
Occurs in
mitochondria:
Have cristae
Folds of inner
mitochondrial membrane
Contains energy
transforming machinery
needed to convert the
energy stored in NADH
and FADH
2
to ATP

Electron Transport Chain
Components of the chain
are enzymes
Grouped into 4 large
complexes
On inner mitochondrial
membrane
End products of the
chain
Gradient of protons across
the inner mitochondrial
membrane
water

ATP is Made Using Energy From Proton Gradient
Proton gradient
similar to dam
Hold water back until
you need it to do work
As water rushes down
its gradient toward
equilibrium,
Use a coupling
mechanism a
waterwheel or turbine-to
put that energy to work
for you.

ATP is Made Using Energy From Proton Gradient
The basic components
of a dam are:
1. Potential energy in
the form of a water
gradient
2. An opening that
directs the water flow in
a specific path
3. A coupling
mechanism to do the
work

ATP is Made Using Energy From Proton Gradient
Synthesis of mitochondria
uses same basic
components.
Protons moving down their
gradient fuels the synthesis of
ATP by
Mitochondrial ATP synthase
This mechanism of ATP
synthesis is called
chemiosmosis.

Net Overall Yield of Cellular Respiration
Net yield of ATP production from one glucose
molecule
Glycolysis: 2 ATP
Krebs Cycle: 2 ATP
Electron Transport Chain
Converting the energy stored in NADH and FADH
2
to
ATP: 32 ATP
Total: 36 ATP
How Do Organisms Acquire Energy?
Only photosynthetic organisms can make
organic molecules from sunlight, CO
2
and
H
2
O.
Heterotrophic organisms obtain organic molecules
by consuming photosynthetic organisms.
Pigments absorb the Energy of Light
Light is a form of energy called electromagnetic
radiation.
Occurs in a vast spectrum of size and energy
Shorter wavelength radiation has more energy than long
wavelength radiation.
Pigments absorb the Energy of Light
Photosynthetic tissues appear green because
they contain pigments.
Molecules that absorb some wavelength of light
and reflect others.
Green plants have the pigment chlorophyll
Absorbs red and blue parts of the spectrum and
reflects the green wavelength.
Pigments absorb the Energy of Light
If a beam of blue light is aimed at a test tube
containing chlorophyll, the solution fluoresces.
Light is briefly absorbed and emitted at a different
wavelength.
Photosynthesis
Consists of two types of reactions:
Light-dependent reactions
Produce ATP and NADPH
Light-independent reactions
Also known as the Calvin-Benson Cycle.
Use ATP and NADPH to produce carbohydrates.
Light Reactions Make ATP and NADPH
Chloroplasts
Large, green,
membrane-bound
organelles.
Site of photosynthesis
Thylakoids
Contain the light-
harvesting pigments.
Stroma
Internal space of
chloroplast.
Steps of Light-dependent Reactions
Noncyclic vs. Cyclic Phosphorylation
Noncyclic:
Flow of electrons follow a linear noncyclic
pathway:


Produce more NADPH than ATP.
Problem: CalvinBenson cycle requires 3 ATP for
every 2 NADPH to make carbohydrate.

2 H
2
O + 2 NADP
+
+ ADP + Phosphate O
2
+ 2 NADPH + ATP
Light energy
Noncyclic vs. Cyclic Phosphorylation
Cyclic:
Depending on the
need for ATP, electrons
can bypass the NADP
+

and be passed back to
the chlorophyll
molecule from which
they originally came.
Still creates proton
gradient.

Calvin-Benson Cycle
Discovered in late
1940s-1950s
Used paper
chromatography and
radioactive carbon.
Depicted carbon-
fixation in green algae
Sugar-producing
process of
photosynthesis.
What Do Humans Need to Eat?
Macronutrients supply energy for our
metabolism.
Macronutrients: dietary components that are
needed in relatively large quantities for proper
body function.
Three kinds:
Protein
Fats
Carbohydrates
Proteins
Make up the main structural components of our
bodies.
Made of 20 amino acids.
Our body can produce 12 from fats and carbohydrates
The other 8, essential amino acids, have to be obtained
from our diet
Dietary proteins that provide all of the essential amino
acids in the proper proportions are called complete
proteins or high-quality proteins.

Fats
Main structural component of cell membranes
Two groups of essential fats:
Omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids must be
obtained from diet.
Healthiest way to to obtain fat is to avoid
foods rich in saturated fat (butter, lard) and
cholesterol and concentrate on foods with
unsaturated fats (vegetable oils).
Carbohydrates
Main source of calories is most diets.
Not all are equally healthy.
Healthy carbohydrates are those not heavily
processed.
Examples: fruits, vegetable, whole grains
Highly processed carbohydrates cause drastic
spikes in insulin levels.
Followed by unstable blood glucose levels and
sensations of false hunger.
Micronutrients
Include vitamins and minerals.
Needed as cofactors for many enzymes.
In order for enzymes to catalyze cellular reactions.
Serve as building materials for bone and
blood.
Required in small amounts.
Crucial for health and well-being.
ENDERGONIC PROCESSES PROCEED BY
COUPLING TO EXERGONIC PROCESSES
The conversion of metabolite A
to metabolite B occurs with
release of free energy. It is
coupled to another
reaction, in which free energy is
required to convert
metabolite C to metabolite D.
Copyright 2009, Dr. Salme Taagepera, PhD.
All rights reserved.
ATP-synthase enzyme utilizes proton gradient to make ATP

25-53
Summary of Cellular Respiration
Glucose + O2 is broken down into
CO2 + H2O + energy used to form
36 to 38 ATPs
2 ATP are formed during glycolysis
2 ATP are formed by phosphorylation
during Krebs cycle
electron transfers in transport chain
generate 32 or 34 ATPs from one
glucose molecule



25-54
ATP Molecule & Energy
Each cell has about 1 billion ATP molecules that last for less than one
minute
Over half of the energy released from ATP is converted to heat
Figure 25.1
Copyright 2009, Dr. Salme Taagepera, PhD. All
rights reserved.
Mitochondria are dynamic
time
Mitochondria move, fuse and divide!
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182&sz=1481&hl=en&start=5&tbnid=oX6jrXBRTh4_n
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Summary
Biologic systems use chemical energy to power the living processes.
Exergonic reactions take place spontaneously with loss of free energy
(G is negative). Endergonic reactions require the gain of free energy
(G is positive) and only occur when coupled to exergonic reactions.
ATP acts as the energy currency of the cell, transferring free energy
derived from substances of higher energy potential to those of lower
energy potential.
Copyright 2009, Dr. Salme Taagepera, PhD.
All rights reserved.