Lecture 03 - ES and MS Fields

ELEN 3371 Electromagnetics
Fall 2008
1
Lecture 3: Static Fields
Instructor:
Dr. Gleb V. Tcheslavski
Contact:
gleb@ee.lamar.edu
Office Hours:
Room 2030
Class web site:
www.ee.lamar.edu/gleb/
em/Index.htm
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2
1. Electrostatic Fields
1.1. Coulombs Law
Something known from the ancient time (here comes amber): two charged
particles exert a force on each other
1 2
2
0
[ ]
4
R
QQ
F u N
R tc
=
(3.2.1)
where Q
1
and Q
2
are charges,
R distance between particles,
u
R
the unit-vector
12 9
0
1
8.854 10 10 /
36
F m the permittivity of free space c
t

~ ~
In this notation, negative force means attraction, positive repelling.
Electrostatic
(Coulombs)
force:
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3
1.1. Coulombs Law (Example)
Find the magnitude of the Coulomb force that exists between an electron
and a proton in a hydrogen atom. Compare the Coulomb force and the
gravitational force between the two particles. The two particles are
separated approximately by 1 ngstrm 1 10
-10
m.
( )
( )
2
19
8
1 2
2
2
9 10
0
1.602 10
2.3 10
1 4
4 10 10
36
C
QQ
F N
R tc
t
t
= ~ ~
| |
|
\ .
( )( )
( )
31 31
11 47
2 2
10
9.11 10 1836 9.11 10
6.67 10 1.02 10
10
e p
G
m m
F G N
R

= ~ ~
39
: 2.27 10
C
G
F
Ratio times
F
=
(3.3.1)
(3.3.2)
This is why chemical bounds are so strong!
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1.2. Electric (electrostatic) Field
Electrostatic field due to the
charge Q:
2
0
4
N V
C m
R
F Q
E u
q R tc
=
( (
=
( (

For a system of two charges:
(3.4.1)
An alternative definition:
0
lim
q q q
q
F F
dF
E
dq q
+

Whats wrong with it?
(3.4.2)
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1.3. Superposition
For several charges placed at different locations in space, the total electric field
at the particular location would be a superposition (vector summation) of
individual electric fields:
1
N
tot n
n
E E
=
=
a vector sum!
(3.5.1)
(Example): find the EF at P
1 1 1
1 2 3
, , , ,
3 1 2
2 2 2
0 1 0 2 0 3
3 2 2
0 0 0
4 4 4
1(3 4 ) 2
3
4 5 4 4 4 3
tot P Q P Q P Q P
R R R
x y y
x
E E E E
Q Q Q
u u u
R R R
u u u
u
tc tc tc
tc tc tc
= + +
= + +
+
= +
Q
1
= +1C, Q
1
= +2C, Q
3
= -3C
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1.3. Superposition (cont)
3
[ / ]
v
Q
C m
v
=
Volume charge density:
2
[ / ]
s
Q
C m
s
=
Surface charge density:
[ / ]
l
Q
C m
l
=
Linear charge density:
(3.6.1)
(3.6.2)
(3.6.3)
2
0
1
0, '
4
v
i R
v
if v number of volumes u dv
R
tc
E =
}
(3.6.4)
There is a differential electric field directed radially from each differential charges
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1.3. Superposition (Example)
Calculate the electric field from a
finite charge uniformly distributed
along a finite line.
Linear charge density: (z)
l

2 2
'
:
'
z
R
z u u
The unit vector u
z

+
=
+
We assume a symmetry along z with respect to the observation point. Therefore, it
will be a charge element at z for every charge element at +z. As a result, fields
in z direction will cancel each other:
0
i
z
i
due to E symmetry =
(3.7.1)
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1.3. Superposition (Example, cont)
The radial component:
2 2
cos
'
dE dE dE dE
R
z
= = =
+
(3.8.1)
Combining (3.4.1) and (3.6.3), we arrive to:
2 2
0
'
4 ( ' )
l
dz
dE
z
tc
=
+
(3.8.2)
which, combined with (3.8.1) and integrated leads to:
( )
3 2 2
2 2
0 0
1
'
4 2
'
a
l l
a
a
E dz
a
z

tc tc

= =
+
+
}
(3.8.3)
0
2
2
l
a E

tc
=
(3.8.4)
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1.3. Superposition (Example 2)
Calculate the electric field
from an infinite plane charged
with
s
and consisting of an
infinite number of parallel
charged lines.
Utilize (3.8.4) and that . The linear charge density:
2 2
R x y = +
l s
dx =
Symmetry leads to cancellation
of tangent components.
1
2 2
2 2 2 2
0 0
0
0
cos tan
2 2 2
2 '
s s s
y
s
y y x
E dE dx dx dx
x y y
x y x y

o
t

c c tc
tc

| |
= = = = =
|
+
+ + \ .
} } }
(3.9.1)
(3.9.2)
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1.4. Gausss Law
A charge Q is uniformly distributed within a
sphere of radius a.
We can assume first that the charge is
located at the center. Than, by (3.4.1):
2
0
4
r
Q
E u
a tc
=
(3.10.1)
By evaluating surface integrals of both sides
2
0
4
r
Q
E ds u ds
a tc
=
} }
(3.10.2)
At the surface of the sphere, the unit-vector associated with the differential surface
area ds points in the radial direction. Therefore, and the closed
surface integral is
1
r r
u u =
2
4 a t
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0
encl
Q
E ds
c
=
}
(3.11.1)
1.4. Gausss Law (cont)
Here Q
encl
is the charge enclosed within the closed surface.
By using divergence theorem and volume charge density concept:
0
v
v
s v
dv
E ds Edv

c
= V =
}
} }
0
v
E

c
V =
Therefore, the
integral form:
Differential form:
(3.11.2)
(3.11.3)
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1.4. Gausss Law (cont 2)
For the charge Q uniformly distributed within the spherical
volume
3
4 / 3 v a t =
The volume charge density:
3
4
3
v
Q Q
v a
t
= =
| |
|
\ .
(3.12.1)
0 0
v
v encl
dv
Q
c c
=
}
The total charge
enclosed:
(3.12.2)
a) Outside the sphere: r > a, Q
encl
= Q
2
0 0
4
v
v
r
s
dv
Q
E ds r E
t
c c
= = =
}
}
2
0
4
r
Q
E
r tc
=
(3.12.3)
(3.12.3)
Gauss Law
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a) Inside the sphere: r < a
1.4. Gausss Law (cont 3)
3
3
3
0 0 0 0
1 4
4 3
3
v
enc v
dv
Q Q r Q r
a a
t
t c c c c
| |
= = =
|
\ .
}
3
2
0 0
4
v
v
r
s
dv
Q r
E ds r E
a
t
c c
| |
= = =
|
\ .
}
}
Gauss Law
3
0
4
r
Qr
E
a tc
=
(3.13.1)
(3.13.2)
(3.13.3)
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1.5. Gaussian Surface
A Gaussian surface is a closed two-dimensional surface through which a flux or
electric field is calculated. The surface is used in conjunction with Gauss's law (a
consequence of the divergence theorem), allowing to calculate the total enclosed
electric charge by exploiting a symmetry while performing a surface integral.
Commonly used are:

a) Spherical surface for
A point charge;
A uniformly distributed spherical shell of charge;
Other charge distribution with a spherical symmetry
b) Cylindrical surface for
A long, straight wire with a uniformly distributed charge;
Any long, straight cylinder or cylindrical shell with uniform charge distribution.
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1.6. Potential Energy and Electric Potential
A charged particle will gain a certain amount of potential energy as the
particle is moved against an electric field.
[ ]
b b
e
a a
W F dl Q E dl J A = =
} }
(3.15.1)
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1.6. Potential Energy and Electric Potential (cont)
Imaginary experiment: compute a total work required to bring three charged
particles from - to the shaded region. No electric field exists at - and there
are no friction, no gravity, and no other forces.
I
There are no forces here, therefore, no work is required! W
1
= 0;
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II
1.6. Potential Energy and Electric Potential (cont 2)
We need to overcome the Coulombs force, therefore, some work is required.
1 2 1 2
2 2 1
2
0 0
4 ( ) 4
b
x
a a
QQ QQ
W dx QV
x x x x tc tc
= = =

}
since both charges are positive
1 1
1
2
0 0
4 ( ) 4
b
x
a a
Q Q
V dx
x x x x tc tc
= =

}
V
1
is an absolute electric potential caused by the charge Q
1

x
a
x
b

(3.17.1)
(3.17.2)
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We need again to overcome the Coulombs force, therefore, some work is required.
1 3 2 3 1 3 2 3
3 3 1 3 2
2 2
0 0 0 0
4 ( ) 4 ( ) 4 4
c c
x x
a b c a c b
QQ Q Q QQ Q Q
W dx dx QV QV
x x x x x x x x tc tc tc tc

= = + = +

} }
III
Totally, for the three particles:
1 2 3 2 12 3 13 23
0 ( )
tot
W W W W QV Q V V = + + = + + +
Or, for N particles:
1 1, 1
0
1 1
2 2 4
N N N
i j
tot i i
i j j i i
ij
QQ
W QV
x tc
= = = =
= =

1,
0
4
N
i
i
j j i
ij
Q
V
x tc
= =
=

Here x
ij
is the distance between charges i and j;
(3.18.1)
(3.18.2)
(3.18.3)
(3.18.4)
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Note: the total work in our case is equal to the total electrostatic energy
stored in the shaded region.
Note: the total work (and the total energy) do not depend on the order, in
which particles are brought.
The electrostatic energy can also be evaluated as
1
[ ]
2
e v
v
W Vdv J =
}
(3.19.1)
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We can express the electric potential difference or voltage as:
1 1
a b a b
a b ab
V V V F dl F dl Q E dl Q E dl
Q Q

| | | |
= A = =
| |
\ . \ .
} } } }
[ ]
b
ab
a
J
C
V V E dl =
(
A =
(

}
or
(3.20.1)
(3.20.2)
Electric potential difference between points a and b is the work required to
move the charge from point a to point b divided by that charge.
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1.6. Potential Energy and Electric Potential (Example)
1
2
3
4
5
6
Evaluate the work (charge times potential
difference) required to move a charge q from
a radius b to a radius a.
The electric field is
2
0
4
r
Q
E u
r tc
=
The potential difference between the two
spherical surfaces is
2
0 0 0
1 1
4 4 4
b
b
ab r r
a
a
Q Q Q
V u u dr
r r a b tc tc tc
| |
A = = =
|
\ .
}
The potential at r = is assumed to be 0 and is called a ground potential.
The electric potential defined with respect to the ground potential is called
an absolute potential.
(3.21.1)
(3.21.2)
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1.6. Potential Energy and Electric Potential (Example, cont)
Considering the path 1-2-3-4, we notice that there are only potential differences
while going 1 2 and 3 4. Therefore, these are the only paths where some
work is required. When moving 2 3, the potential is constant, therefore no
work is required.
A surface that has the same potential is called an equipotential surface.
If the separation between two equipotential surfaces and the voltage between
them are small:
x y z
V V V
dV E dl E dx E dy E dz dx dy dz
x y z
c c c
~ = = + +
c c c
:
x y z
V
m
V V V
E u u u
x y
The electric fi
z
eld
c c c
(
=
(
c c c

(3.22.1)
(3.22.2)
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We can modify (3.22.2) as following:
E V = V
( )
2
0 0
2
v v
V
m
S V ince E V
c

c

(
V = = V V V =
(

Poissons equation
Laplaces eqn. when
v
= 0
An absolute potential caused by a volume distribution that is not at the origin:
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2
0
( ', ', ') 1
( , , ) ' ' '
4
' ' '
v
v
x y z
V x y z dx dy dz
x x y y z z
tc
=
+ +
}
(3.23.1)
(3.23.2)
(3.23.3)
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The potential energy would be
( )
0 0
0
1 1
( )
2 2 2 2
e v
v v v v
W Vdv E Vdv VE E V dv VE ds
c c
c = = V = V V =
} } } }
0
2
v
E Vdv
c
V
}
for R
2
0 0
2 2
v
e
v
W E dv E Edv
c c
= =
} }
(3.24.1)
(3.24.2)
Note that when a charged particle is moved along a closed contour, no work is required
0 0
e
s
E ds E
W
E ds
Q
= = V = V =
} }
Electrostatic field is conservative and irrotational.
(3.24.3)
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1.6. Potential Energy and Electric Potential (Example 2)
Find the potential V due to
two equal charges that have
opposite signs and are in the
vacuum. The distance from
the point of interest is much
greater than the separation.
The configuration is known
as an electric dipole.
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1.6. Potential Energy and Electric Potential (Example 2, cont)
Due to superposition:
0 1 0 2
4 4
Q Q
V
r r tc tc
=
Since r >> d; r, r
1
, and r
2
are almost parallel.
1 2
cos cos
2 2
d d
r r and r r u u ~ ~ +
0
2
0
0
0
4 cos 4 cos
2 2
1 cos 1 cos
4
c s
2
o
2 4
Q Q
V
d d
r r
Q d d
r
Qd
r r r
tc u
u
tc
tc u
u u
tc
~
| | | |
+
| |
\ . \ .
| |
~ + + =
|
\ .
A vector p = Qd is a dipole moment.
(3.26.1)
(3.26.2)
(3.26.3)
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0.002
0.004
0.006
0.008
0.01
30
210
60
240
90 270
120
300
150
330
180
0
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
-0.01
-0.008
-0.006
-0.004
-0.002
0
0.002
0.004
0.006
0.008
0.01
V
Angle, rad
1.6. Potential Energy and Electric Potential (Example 2, cont)
Electric potential distribution plot of (3.26.3)
plot
polar
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1.7. On numerical integration
trapz
quad
dblquad
triplequad
Self-study
When no symmetry can be used to simplify the problem, numerical integrations
are quite helpful. Numerical integration = APPROXIMATION.
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1.8. Dielectric materials
A material can be considered as a collection of randomly (in general) oriented
small electric dipoles.
If an external electric
field is applied, the
dipoles may orient
themselves.
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1.8. Dielectric materials (cont)
We may suggest that an external electric
field causes a thin layer of charge of the
opposite sign at either edge of the material.
This charge is called a polarization charge.
The density of the polarization charge:
p
P = V
where P is the polarization field:
0
1
1
lim
N
j
v
j
P p
v
=
(
=
(

Here p
j
= Qdu
d
is the dipole moment of individual dipole, N number of atoms
(dipoles)
(3.30.1)
(3.30.2)
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1.8. Dielectric materials (cont 2)
Let us add the polarization charge density to the real charge density. The
Gausss Law will take a form:
0
v p
E

c
+
V =
which leads to
v
D V =
where
2
0
( )
C
m
electric displacemen D E P t flux density c
(
= +

(

(3.31.1)
(3.31.2)
(3.31.3)
The total flux that passes through the surface
[ ]
e
s
D ds C u =
}
(3.31.4)
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1.8. Dielectric materials (cont 3)
Integrating (3.31.2) over a volume, leads to
enc
s
D ds Q =
}
(3.32.1)
Dielectric materials are susceptible to polarization. Usually, polarization is linearly
proportional to the applied (small) electric field. Then
0 e
P E c _ = (3.32.2)
where _
e
is the electric susceptibility
0 0
(1 )
e r
D E E E c _ c c c = + = =
c
r
is the relative dielectric constant
(3.32.3)
for linear and isotropic materials
We consider only linear materials here.
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1.9. Capacitance
[ ]
Q
C F
V

A
(3.33.1)
A parallel-plate capacitor
Area A w z = (3.33.2)
Assume A >> d
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1.9. Capacitance (cont)
0 0 0
2
2
enc s s
s
Q A
E ds EA E between plates

c c c
= = =
}
b
ab
a
V E dl Ed = =
}
0
0
,
s
s
A A Q
C or in case of dielectric
V d
C
d
d
A c
c
c
= = = =
2
2
2
0 0
2 2 2
e
v
V CV
W E dv Ad
d
c c
| |
= =
|
\
=
.
}
Stored energy:
(3.34.1)
(3.34.2)
(3.34.3)
(3.34.4)
Assumed uniform field in the capacitor and uniform distribution of charge on plates
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1.9. Capacitance (Example)
Calculate the mutual capacitance of a coax cable
with dielectric c
r
inside
From the Gausss Law:
2
enc l
D ds Q D L L t = =
}
ln
2 2
b b
l l
ab
a a
b
V E dl d
a

tc tc
(
= = =
(

} }
Potential difference:
The total charge:
l
Q L =
n
2
ln l
2
l
l
ab
L Q
b
V
a
C L
b
a
tc
tc
= =
(
(
=
(
(

(3.35.1)
(3.35.2)
(3.35.3)
(3.35.4)
HW 2 is ready
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2. Magnetostatic Fields
2.1. Electric currents
Lets consider a wire
The generalized Ohms Law specifies a current density:
2
1 A
m
V
I V L
R
A A L A R
J E o
A
=
A
(
= = =
(

Alternative:
v drift v m
J v E E o = = =
where is the electron volume charge density, is an average
electron drift velocity, is the mobility of the material.
v
drift
v
m
1/
v m
R the conductivity o = =
(3.36.1)
(3.36.2)
(3.36.3)
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2.1. Electric currents (cont)
The total current that passes through the wire
A
I J ds
A
|A| =
}
2
I J a t =
In our case f the current is distributed uniformly in a cylindrical wire:
The power density (density of power dissipating within a conductor):
2
W m p J E = (

The total power absorbed within the volume:
[ ]
v
P pdv W =
}
(3.37.1)
(3.37.2)
(3.37.3)
(3.37.4)
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2.1. Electric currents (Examples)
a) Calculate the current flowing through the wire of radius a; current density:
0 z
J I u
a
=
skin effect
2
2
0 0
0 0
2
3
a
z z
a
I I u d d u I
a
t
|
| t
= =
= =
} }
b) Calculate the power dissipated within a resistor with a uniform conductivity o.
The voltage across the resistor is AV, a current passing through is I.
2
2
0 0 0
L a
v z
I V
J E dv d d dz
L
P VI
t
|
|
t
= = =
A
= = = A
} } } }
(3.38.1)
(3.38.2)
(3.38.3)
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2.2. Fundamentals of Magnetic Fields
Magnetic loops at the
surface of the Sun, as seen
with the TRACE solar
spacecraft. (TRACE
operation team, Lockheed
Martin)
?Magnetic monopole?
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40
2.2. Fundamentals of Magnetic Fields (cont)
Magnetic field lines are continuous, dont originate nor terminate at a point.
There is no magnetic monopole
0 B ds =
}
B is a magnetic flux density, [T] = [Wb/m
2
]
(3.40.1)
0 B V =
By applying the divergence theorem to (3.40.1):
v
B ds Bdv = V
} }
(3.40.2)
(3.40.3)
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2.2. Fundamentals of Magnetic Fields (cont 2)
As a result, we can
split a bar magnet into
tiny pieces and all of
them will have both
north and south poles.
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42
Magnetic field can be created by the electric current:
0 enc
B dl I =
}
electric current enclosed within a closed loop
| |
7 7
0
: 1 4 10 2.566 10 H m Permiability of free space t

~
A cylindrical wire caring a current
creates a magnetic field.
Right Hand Rule (RHR).
(3.42.1)
Amperes Law:
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43
By applying Stokess theorem to (3.42.1), we arrive to
0
s s
B dl B ds J ds = V =
} } }
Therefore, the differential
form of Amperes Law is:
0
B J V =
An axial view of the cortically-generated magnetic
field of a human listener, measured using whole-
head magnetoencephalography (MEG) from the
journal Cerebral Cortex
It appears that even very small currents generate
magnetic fields
(3.43.1)
(3.43.2)
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2.2. Fundamentals of Magnetic Fields (Example)
A symmetry in the system greatly simplifies
evaluation of integrals in (3.42.1).
2
0
2 B dl B u d u B
t
| | | |
| t = =
} }
The right-hand side of (3.42.1) for the radius
greater than a is just
0
I.
0
,
2
I
B a
|

t
= >
Assuming a uniformly distribution of current within the wire, the current density
inside the wire is
2
z
I
J u
a t
=
(3.44.1)
(3.44.2)
(3.44.3)
Fall 2008
45
2.2. Fundamentals of Magnetic Fields (Example 2)
2
2
2
0 0
enc
s r
I
I J ds r dr d I
a a
t
|
|
t
= =
| |
= = =
|
\ .
} } }
The total current enclosed within the circle of radius s a
Therefore:
0
2
,
2
I
B
a
a
|

t
= s
(3.45.1)
(3.45.2)
We notice that at the edge of the
wire, two solutions given by
(3.44.1) and (3.45.2) are equal.
Can you further explain the
dependence of magnetic flux
on the radius?
Fall 2008
46
2.3. Magnetic Vector Potential
A magnetic vector potential A such that:
A B V =
0
0 A
A J
V V =
VV =
Amperes Law:
2
0
A J V =
In the Cartesian coordinates:
0
( ')
( )
4
v
J r
A r dv
R
t
=
}
2 2 2
( ') ( ') ( ') where R x x y y z z = + +
(3.46.1)
(3.46.2)
(3.46.3)
(3.46.4)
(3.46.5)
(3.46.6)
Fall 2008
47
2.3. Magnetic Vector Potential (cont)
Magnetic vector potential, magnetic flux, and current element
Fall 2008
48
2.3. Magnetic Vector Potential (cont 2)
The Magnetic flux density:
0 0
( ') ( ')
( ) ( )
4 4
v v
J r J r
B r A r dv dv
R R

t t
| |
| |
= V = V = V
|
|
\ .
\ .
} }
( ') 0 Since a a B a B and J r V( B) = V + V V =
0 0 0
2 2
( ') 1
( ) ( ') ( ')
4 4 4
R R
v v v
u J r u
B r J r dv J r dv dv
R R R

t t t

= V = =
} } }
If the current is passing through a wire
0
2
'
( )
4
R
I dl u
B r
R
t

=
}
the Biot-Savart Law
(3.48.1)
(3.48.2)
(3.48.3)
(3.48.4)
Fall 2008
49
2.3. Magnetic Vector Potential (Example)
Find the magnetic field on the axis perpendicular to
the loop of current. Use the Biot-Savart Law.
We identify the terms appearing in (3.48.4):
( )
2 2
' ' , ,
R z
dl a d u u a u z u R R a z
|
| = = + = +
2
0 0
2 2 3 2 2 2 3 2
( ' ) ( ) ' '
( )
4 ( ) 4 ( )
z z
a d u a u z u a d u a z d u
I I
B z
a z a z
|
| | |

t t
+ +
= =
+ +
} }
Due to symmetry, the terms with the unit vector u
are zero.
2
0 0
2 2 3 2 3
( )
2 ( ) 2
z
I a m
B z u
a z R
t
t t
= =
+
2
the magnetic dipole moment
z
m I a u t =
(3.49.1)
(3.49.2)
(3.49.3)
Fall 2008
50
2.3. Magnetic Vector Potential (Cont 3)
We have learned the following analytical methods to find the magnetic flux
density at a point in space from a current element:
1. Application of Amperes Law, which requires considerable
symmetry.
2. Determination of the vector magnetic potential and the calculation
of a magnetic flux density. No symmetry is required.
3. Application of the Biot-Savart law. No symmetry is required.
Fall 2008
51
2.4. Magnetic forces
If a charged particle is moving with a constant velocity v in a region that ONLY
contains a magnetic field with the density B, the force that acts upon the particle is
( )
m
F q v B =
Direction of the force
- RHR!

F+ stands for a
positively charged
particle;
F- represents a
negatively charged
one.
(3.51.1)
Fall 2008
52
2.4. Magnetic forces (cont)
When a charged particle is going through an area with both: uniform electric field
and uniform magnetic field, the force exerted on it would be the Lorentz Force:
[ ] ( ) N F q E v B = +
(3.52.1)
Recall that the work done by a charged particle moving in a field is
b
a
W F dl A =
}
(3.52.2)
A differential charge dQ =
v
dv moving at a constant velocity creates a current. If
this current flows in a closed loop:
( ) ( )
m v
dF dQ v B v B dv J B ds dl Idl B = = = =
m
F B I dl =
}
The total magnetic force:
(3.52.3)
(3.52.4)
Fall 2008
53
2.4. Magnetic forces (cont 2)
Example: a charged particle entered a constant magnetic
field will move along a circular orbit. Find the radius
Centripetal force: , m particles mass
2
c c
j
v
F ma m
= =
Magnetic force:
m
F qvB =
j
mv
qB
=
This radius is called the Larmor radius or gyro radius. This effect is used in
mass spectroscopy.
(3.53.2)
(3.53.1)
(3.53.3)
Fall 2008
54
2.4. Magnetic forces (Example)
Evaluate the force existing
between two parallel wires caring
currents.
B
1
will go up at the location of wire 2.
From (3.52.4) force on the wire 2:
2 1 2 y z
F Bu I dl u =
to the left
(3.54.1)
2 1 2
( )
y z
F Bu I dl u =
to the right
(3.54.2)
a)
b)
Fall 2008
55
2.4. Magnetic forces (Example, cont) Alternative approach
Lets re-state the force on wire 1 caused by the magnetic field generated by
the current in wire 2 (from 3.52.4)
1
12 1 12
L
F I B dl =
}
From the Biot-Savart law:
21
2
2
0 2
12
2
21
4
R
L
u dl
I
B
R
t

=
}
( )
21
1 2
2 1
0 1 2
12
2
21
4
R
L L
u dl dl
I I
F
R
t

=
} }
Finally:
(3.55.1)
(3.55.2)
(3.55.3)
This is whats called as Amperes force.
Fall 2008
56
2.4. Magnetic forces (Example 2)
Consider a current-caring loop in a constant
magnetic field B = B
0
u
z
.
We assume the separation between the In/Out
wires to be infinitely small.
Parallel wires carry the same current in the
opposite direction. Therefore, the net force will
be a vector sum of all forces, which is zero!
However, there will be a torque on the loop
that will make it to rotate (say, about x for
simplicity).
Fall 2008
57
2.4. Magnetic forces (Example 2, cont)
The torque on the loop is given by
1 3
sin sin
2 2
y y
T F F u u = +
Assumptions?
1 0 3 0
, where F IB x F IB x = =
0
sin T IB x y u =
Finally:
T m B =
magnetic moment
(3.57.1)
(3.57.2)
(3.57.3)
(3.57.4)
Fall 2008
58
2.5. Magnetic materials
Two sources of magnetism inside an atom:
1) an electron rotating around a nucleus;
2) an electron spinning about its own axis.
Types of material:
1. Diamagnetic: 1) and 2) cancel each other almost
completely, magnetic susceptibility _
m
~ -10
-5
.
2. Paramagnetic: 1) and 2) do not cancel each other
completely, magnetic susceptibility _
m
~ 10
-5
.
3. Ferromagnetic: domain structure, very high _
m
(hundreds
and higher)
magnetic dipoles
oriented randomly
magnetic
dipoles in
each domain
are oriented
Fall 2008
59
2.5. Magnetic materials: Ferromagnetics
Total magnetization (magnetic dipole
moment per unit volume):
External magnetic field may change dipole orientation permanently - HDD.
| |
0
1
1
lim
N
j
v
j
A m M m
v
(3.59.1)
There is a current created inside domains (magnetization current):
m m
s s
I M dl J ds M ds = = = V
} } }
,
m
Therefore J M = V
We may modify the Amperes Law by adding the magnetization current:
0 0
1
m
B
B J J J M J M

| |
V = + = +V = V
|
\ .
(3.59.2)
(3.59.3)
(3.59.4)
Fall 2008
60
(3.60.1)
2.5. Magnetic materials: Ferromagnetics (cont)
We introduce a new quantity, the Magnetic Field Intensity:
| |
0
A m
B
H M
=
Therefore, the Amperes circular law is
enc
H dl I =
}
(3.60.2)
:
m
Magnetizatio M H n _ =
Therefore:
0 0
(1 )
m r
B H H H _ = + = =
(3.60.3)
(3.60.4)
where
r
is the relative permeability.
Fall 2008
61
2.5. Magnetic materials: Ferromagnetics (cont 2)
Example: a magnetic flux density B = 0.05 T appears in a material with
r
= 50.
Find the magnetic susceptibility and the magnetic field intensity.
1 50 1 49
m r
_ = = =
7
0
0.05
796 [ ]
50 4 10
r
B
H A m
t

= = =

Hysteresis
Magnetic flux density B exhibits nonlinear
dependence on the magnetic field intensity H.
Because of hysteresis, magnetic materials
remember the magnitude and direction of
magnetic flux density. They can be used as
memory elements.
saturation
saturation
Fall 2008
62
2.6. Magnetic circuits
Just like electrical circuits, we can build magnetic circuits where magnetic flux flows.
L mean length
of the iron region

g length of the
gap.
I
m
the reluctance.
Assumptions:
1) the gap is very small;
2) the cross-sectional area of the gap is identical to the cross-sectional area of the
magnetic material.
Fall 2008
63
2.6. Magnetic circuits (cont)
The Amperes circular law leads to
( )
enc
H L g I NI + = =
where I is the current flowing through the N turns of a wire.
0 0 0 0
m
r r
B B L g
L g NI
A A
| |
+ = u + =
|
\ .
Here A is the cross-sectional area of the iron
m
F NI =
is the magnetomotive force [A-turns]
, ,
0 0
m iron m gap
r
L g
A A
I + I = +
is the reluctance
(3.63.1)
(3.63.2)
(3.63.3)
(3.63.4)
The Hopkinsons Law (aka Ohms):
m m m
F u = I
(3.63.5)
Fall 2008
64
2.6. Magnetic circuits (Examples)
Fall 2008
65
2.7. Inductance (an ability to create magnetic flux)
When j = k self inductance; otherwise mutual inductance.
where A is a magnetic flux linkage.
| | | |
j
jk
k
H Wb A L
I
=
A
=
Ex. 1: Let us consider a
solenoid of the length d,
cross-section area A,
and having N turns.
It may also have a core
made from a magnetic
material.
z is the solenoids axis.
(3.65.1)
Fall 2008
66
2.7. Inductance (cont)
The magnetic flux density at the center of the solenoid is:
z
NI
B
d
=
The total magnetic flux:
m
NI
A
d
u =
The magnetic flux linkage:
2
m
N I
N A
d
A = u =
Therefore, the self-inductance of a solenoid is
2
N
L A
d
=
(3.66.1)
(3.66.2)
(3.66.3)
(3.66.4)
Fall 2008
67
2.7. Inductance (cont 2)
Example 2: a self-inductance of a coaxial cable
Here, the magnetic flux linkage equals to the
total magnetic flux.
What is the main difference as compared to a
solenoid?
2
I
B
r
|

t
=
mfd:
0
ln
2 2
z b
m
z r a
I I b
dr dz z
r a

t t
= =
| |
A = u = =
|
\ .
} }
ln
2
b
L z
a
t
| |
=
|
\ .
Therefore:
(3.67.1)
(3.67.2)
(3.67.3)
Fall 2008
68
Example 3: a mutual inductance between two
circular solenoids, whose individual lengths are
d and areas S
1
and S
2
, separated by x; x << d
x
First coil:
0 1 1
1
N I
B
d
=
,1 1 1 m
B S u =
Assuming that the magnetic flux has the
same value in the second solenoid:
2 2 1 1
N B S A =
Therefore, the mutual inductance:
0 1 2 1 2
1
N N S
M
I d
A
= =
(3.68.1)
(3.68.2)
(3.68.3)
(3.68.4)
Fall 2008
69
Example 4: consider a transformer with N
1
and N
2
turns.
Alternative formulas:
12 1 2 12
M N N P =
1 2
M k L L =
correction coefficient
permeance of the space
occupied by the flux
coefficient of coupling
(3.69.1)
(3.69.2)
Fall 2008
70
Solenoids, transformers, etc. can store magnetic energy:
2
0 0 0 0
' ' '
' 2
t t t t
m
dI LI
W p dt IV dt I L dt L I dI
dt
| |
= = = = =
|
\ .
} } } }
2
2
1
2
z
m
B d N
W A
d N
| |
=
|
\ .
for a solenoid:
The total magnetic energy
stored within a volume
| |
2
2
m
v
J
B
W dv
=
}
(3.70.1)
(3.70.2)
(3.70.3)
Your homework 3 is available through My Lamar

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