1.

Add up the contribution of all point charges at this point

V
A

1
4
0
q
i
r
i
i
q
1

r
1

q
2

r
2

A
2. Travel along a path from point very far away to the location
of interest and add up at each step:
E dl

V
A
E dl

q
1

q
2

A
E
dl
Potential at a Certain Location
A
Example: E = 0 inside a charged metal sphere, but V is not!
Common Pitfall
Assume that the potential V at a location is defined by the
electric field at this location. E
A negative test charge Q = -0.6C was moved from point A to
point B In a uniform electric field E=5N/C. The test charge is at
rest before and after the move. The distance between A and
B is 0.5m and the line connecting A and B is perpendicular to
the electric field. How much work was done by the net external
force while moving the test charge from A to B?
A
B
0.5m
E = 5 N/C
A. 1.5J
B. 0J
C. 1.5J
D. 3.0J
E. 3.0J
After moving the -0.6C test charge from A to B, it was then
moved from B to C along the electric field line. The test charge
is at rest before and after the move. The distance between B
and C also is 0.5m. How much work was done by the net
external force while moving the test charge from A to C?
A. 1.5J
B. 0J
C. 1.5J
D. 3.0J
E. -3.0J
A
C B
0.5m
E = 5 N/C
Instead of moving the test charge from A to B then to C, it is
moved from A to D and then back to C. The test charge is at
rest before and after the move. How much work was done by
the net external force while moving the test charge this time?
A. 1.5J
B. 0J
C. 1.5J
D. Infinitely big
E. Do not know at this time.
E = 5 N/C
A
B
0.5m
C
0.5m
D
+1.5 J of work was done by the net external force while moving
the -0.6 C test charge from B to C. The test charge is at rest
before and after the move. What is the voltage difference
between B and C, and at which point is the voltage larger?
A. 2.5 V, voltage higher at B.
B. 2.5 V, voltage higher at C.
C. 0.9 V, voltage higher at B.
D. 1.5 V, voltage higher at B.
E. 1.5 V, voltage higher at C.
A
E = 5 N/C
B
0.5m
C
0.5m
D
Chapter 18
Magnetic Field
A compass needle turns and points in a particular direction
there is something which interacts with it
Magnetic field (B): whatever it is that is detected by a compass
Compass: similar to electric dipole
Magnetic Field
Magnetic fields are produced by moving charges
Current in a wire: convenient source of magnetic field
Static equilibrium: net motion of electrons is zero
Can make electric circuit with continuous motion of electrons
The electron current (i) is the number of electrons per second
that enter a section of a conductor.
Counting electrons: complicated
Indirect methods:
measure magnetic field
measure heating effect
Electron Current
Both are proportional to the electron current
We use a magnetic compass as a detector of B.
How can we be sure that it does not simply respond to
electric fields?
Interacts with iron, steel even if they are neutral
Unaffected by aluminum, plastic etc., though
charged objects polarize and interact with these
materials
Points toward North pole electric dipole does not do that
Detecting Magnetic Fields
Compass needle:
Imagine an electric circuit:
What is the effect on the compass needle?
What if we switch polarity?
What if we run wire under compass?
What if we change the current or there is no current in the wire?
The Magnetic Effects of Currents
Experimental results:
The magnitude of B depends on the amount of current
A wire with no current produces no B
B is perpendicular to the direction of current
B under the wire is opposite to B over the wire
Oersted effect:
discovered in 1820 by H. Ch. rsted
How does the field around a wire look?
The Magnetic Effects of Currents
Hans Christian rsted
(1777 - 1851)
Principle of superposition:
wire Earth net
B B B +
What can you say about the magnitudes of B
Earth
and B
wire
?
What if B
Earth
were much larger than B
wire
?
The Magnetic Effects of Currents
The moving electrons in a wire create a magnetic field
A current-carrying wire is oriented N-S and laid on top of a
compass. The compass needle points 27
o
west. What is the
magnitude and direction of the magnetic field created by the
wire B
wire
if the magnetic field of Earth is B
Earth
= 2

10
-5
T
(tesla).
wire Earth net
B B B +
tan
Earth wire
B B
27 tan 10 2
5


T
wire
B
T
5
10 1

wire
B
Exercise
Biot-Savart Law for a Single Charge
r
r
q
E
4
1
2
0

Electric field of a point charge:

Moving charge makes a curly magnetic field:
2
0

4 r
r v q
B

B units: T (tesla) = kg s
-2
A
-1
Jean-Baptiste Biot
(1774-1862)

Felix Savart
(1791-1841)
Nikola Tesla
(1856-1943)
m/s C
m T
2

7
0
10
4

Nikola Tesla (1856-1943)

High tension coil demonstration

A B
A
x
A
y
A
z

B
x
B
y
B
z

A
y
B
z
A
z
B
y
A
z
B
x
A
x
B
z
A
x
B
y
A
y
B
x

i

j

k
A
x
A
y
A
z
B
x
B
y
B
z
A
y
B
z
A
z
B
y
( )

i A
x
B
z
A
z
B
x
( )

j + A
x
B
y
A
y
B
x
( )

k
Calculate magnitude:

A B A B sin
Right-hand rule
The Cross Product
Calculate direction:
2
0

4 r
r v q
B

Question
W h a t i s t he d ir e ct i o n o f
< 0 , 0 , 3 > x < 0 , 4 , 0 > ?
A ) +x
B ) x
C ) +y
D ) y
E ) z er o m ag n it u d e

A B
A < 0, 0, 3 >; B < 0, 4, 0 >

0 0 3
0 4 0

= (0 12)
2
0

4 r
r v q
B

a vector (arrow) is facing into the screen

a vector (arrow) is facing out of the screen
v
r
B
B
B
B
B
Two-dimensional Projections
Why must the field change direction above and below the dashed line?
What is B straight ahead?
2
0

4 r
r v q
B

What if the charge is negative?

Exercise
2
0

4 r
r v q
B

v
r
B
1

B
2

B
3

Which is larger, B
1
or B
3
?
Which is larger, B
1
or B
2
?
Distance Dependence
B

0
4
qv
r
2
sin
2
0

4 r
r v q
B

v
r
B
1

v
r
B
v
r
B
1

Magnetic field depends on qv:
Positive and negative charges produce
the same B if moving in opposite
directions at the same speed
For the purpose of predicting B we
can describe current flow in terms of
conventional current positive
moving charges.
Moving Charge Sign Dependence
B

0
4
qv
r
2
sin
+
-
-
Question
An electron passing through the origin is traveling at a constant
velocity in the negative y direction. What is the direction of the
magnetic field at a point on the positive z axis?
A) -x
B) +x
C) -z
D) +z
E) No magnetic field
x
z
y
v

What would the direction of conventional current have to be?
A current-carrying wire lies on
top of a compass. What is the
direction of the electron current
in this wire?
Exercise

Electric fields: produced by charges

Magnetic fields: produced by moving charges
charged tape
Any magnetic field?
0

4
2
0

r
r v q
B

4
2
0

r
r v q
B

Frame of Reference
2
0

4 r
r v q
B

Must use the velocities of the charges as you observe them in

your reference frame!
There is a deep connection between electric field and magnetic
fields (Einsteins special theory of relativity)
Frame of Reference
If we suddenly change the current in a wire:
Magnetic field will not change instantaneously.
Electron and positron collide:
Produce both electric and magnetic field, these fields exist
even after annihilation.
Changes propagate at speed of light
2
0

4 r
r v q
B

There is no time in Biot-Savart law:

Speed of moving charges must be small
Retardation
A steady flow of charges in one direction will create a
magnetic field. How can we cause charges to flow steadily?
Need to find a way to produce and sustain E in a wire.
Use battery
Electron Current
n
electrons
m
3

A m
2
( )
v
m
s

t s ( ) nAv t electrons
Electron current: i
# electrons
s
nAv
mobile
electron
density
wire
Cross sectional
area
Average
drift
speed
Electron Current
Typical electron current in a circuit is ~ 10
18
electrons/s.
What is the drift speed of an electron in a 1 mm thick copper
wire of circular cross section?
3 28
10 4 . 8

m n v nA
s
electrons #
A
D
2
4

3.14 1 10
3
m
( )
2
4
8 10
7
m
2
v
10
18
s
-1
nA

10
18
s
-1
8.4 10
28
m
3
( )
8 10
7
m
2
( )
1.5 10
5
m/s
Typical Mobile Electron Drift Speed
m/s
5
10 5 . 1

v
How much time would it take for a particular electron to move
through a piece of wire 30 cm long?
hours! s
m/s
m
5 . 5 10 2
10 5 . 1
3 0
4
5

.
v
s
t
How can a lamp light up as soon as you turn it on?
Typical Mobile Electron Drift Speed
Observing magnetic field around copper wire:
Can we tell whether the current consists of electrons or positive
holes?
In some materials current moving charges are positive:
Ionic solution
Holes in some materials (same charge as electron but +)
2
0

4 r
r v q
B

2
0

4 r
r v e
B

0
4
e ( ) v ( )

r
r
2
Conventional Current
The prediction of the Biot-Savart law is exactly the same in either case.
2
0

4 r
r v e
B

0
4
e ( ) v ( )

r
r
2
Metals: current consists of electrons
Semiconductors:
n-type electrons
p-type positive holes
Most effects are insensitive to the sign of mobile charges:
introduce conventional current:
v nA q i q I
Conventional Current
Units: C/s A (Ampere)
Andr Marie Ampre
(1775 - 1836)
A typical electron current in a circuit is 10
18
electrons/s.
What is the conventional current?
I q i 1.6 10
19
C
( )
10
18
s
-1
( )
0.16 A
Exercise
Superposition principle is valid

B
i


0
4
q
i
v
i


r
i
r
i
2

B B
i
i

0
4
q
i
v
i


r
i
r
i
2
i

i
r
r v q
B 1

4
2
0

l nA
r
r v q
B

2
0

4

v nA q i q I
2
0

4 r
r l I
B

The Biot-Savart law for a

short length of thin wire
The Biot-Savart Law for Currents
Moving charge produces a curly magnetic field
B units: T (Tesla) = kg s
-2
A
-1
m/s C
m T
2

7
0
10
4

2
0

4 r
r v q
B

Single Charge:
Biot-Savart Law
v nA q i q I
2
0

4 r
r l I
B

The Biot-Savart law for a

short length of thin wire
Current: