Power flow analysis of AC/DC

systems
SINGLE PHASE ALGORITHM
Formulation of the problem
Operating state is defined by vectors
V-voltage vector at all ac system busbars
-angles at all ac system busbars
X-vector of dc variables.

Power equality constraints
Injected Powers are functions of converter terminal
busbar voltage and dc variables.


The equations can be summarized as




Along with these a set of independent equations are
derived from DC system conditions
Summary of AC-DC loadflow






term refers to converter AC terminal busbar.
Modeling of HVDC systems
The representation of the dc systems requires
consideration of the following:
Converter model
DC transmission line/network model
Interface between ac and dc systems
DC system controls model
Representation of the converters is based on
basic assumptions
The three a.c. voltages at the terminal bus bar are
balanced and sinusoidal.
The converter operation is perfectly balanced (small
voltage drop is neglected).
The direct current and voltage are smooth.
The converter transformer is lossless and the
magnetising admittance is ignored.
Converter whether rectifying or inverting is
represented by the circuit,
3 Phase representation along with converter
transformer





Under balanced conditions similar converter bridges
attached to the same a.c. terminal
bus bar will operate identically regardless of the
transformer connection. They may therefore be
replaced by an equivalent single bridge for the
purpose of single-phase load-flow analysis.
1 phase representation




Single phase eqvt circuit is


Variables describing the converter system
operation are, (dc variables & ac system variables)
V
term
- converter terminal bus bar nodal voltage
or AC bus voltage (phase angle referred to
converter reference)
E- fundamental frequency component of the
voltage waveform at the converter transfomer
secondary
I
p
, I
s
- fundamental frequency component of the
current on the primary and secondary of the
converter transformer respectively


- firing delay angle
a- transformer off-nominal tap ratio
V
d
- average d.c. voltage
I
d
- converter direct current

The minimal set of independent variables which is
required to define the operation of the converter
(i.e to model the DC system) and to define the
control specification of the HVDC converter are
given by
[ x ]=[V
d
, I
d
, a, cos, ]
T

dc per unit system
Use common power and voltage base parameters on both
sides of the converter, i.e. the a.c. and d.c. sides for
simplicity.
To preserve consistency of power in per unit, the direct
current base, obtained from (MVA
B
)/V
B
has to be 3 times
larger than the a.c. current base.






In pu the eqn is,





K=0.995
Equations describing the DC system are given as ,
1.The fundamental current magnitude on the converter
side is related to the direct current by


2.The fundamental current magnitudes on both sides of
the lossless transformer are related by the off-
nominal tap,
3. The d.c. voltage may be expressed in terms of the bus
bar voltage on the system side of the converter
transformer, V
term

4. The d.c. current and voltage are related by the d.c.
system configuration

5. Real power equation relates dc power to transformer
primary real power and secondary real power.

6. As transformer is loss-less,


Eqn 1,2,5 & 6 can be combined to give







DC system model can be summarized as follows
k - no of converters present

R is the vector of DC system equations and x is the
vector of independent variables for dc system
The equations for P
dc
and Q
dc
may now be
written as





i.e
Real power injection into the ac bus is
P=V
d
I
d
=P
dc


Reactive power injection into the ac bus is
Q = P tan



Fourier analysis of the a.c. current waveform,
gives the relationship between the r.m.s. of
the fundamental component and the direct
current as




Average rectified voltage is



In practice the voltage is lost due to the reactance (X)
of the a.c. system (as seen from the converter),
referred to as commutation reactance.
DC network/line model
DC network consist of smoothing reactor, DC
filters and the transmission line.
The smoothing reactor& DC filters are represented
as lumped parameter linear elements.
DC line is modeled as T or Pi model
For the purpose of illustration, we will consider a
two terminal dc link. Using the subscripts r and i
to denote rectifier and inverter quantities,
respectively, the equation for a DC line having
resistance R
L
is given by
V
dr
= V
di
+ R
L
Id

Controller equation of dc system

At each converter, the angle and the transformer
tap a can be controlled with in limits to achieve
current control, dc voltage control, real & reactive
power control.
Limits on the control variables must be considered
when specifying I
d
, V
d
, P
d
Each additional converter in the d.c. system
contributes two further constraint equations which
must be derived from the control strategy of the
system to define the operating state.
Inversion operation
Due to unidirectional nature of converter
valves power reversal requires direct voltage
polarity reversal achieved by delay angle
control i.e >90
0
(average inverter voltage will be
negative)
Inverter voltage in terms of extinction angle is

Inverter operation requires the existence of three
conditions.
(i) An active a.c. system which provides the commutating
voltages.
(ii) A d.c. power supply of opposite polarity to provide
continuity for the unidirectional current flow (i.e. from
anode to cathode through the switching devices).
(iii) Fully controlled rectification to provide firing delays
beyond 90
0
.
When this is met, a negative voltage is produced at
converter terminals and power is inverted(-V
d
I
d
)
Power factor angle () is > than 90
0
Interface between AC &DC systems
Here Eacr and Eaci are considered to be input
quantities for the solution of dc system equations.
They are known from the previous
step in ac solution.
Variables Pr ,Qr, Pi and Qi are considered to be the
outputs from the solution of the dc system
equations.
They are used in the next iteration for solving
the ac system equations.

AC-DC LOAD FLOW
The operating state of the combined AC-HVDC power
system is defined by the vector,

where
v is a vector of the voltage magnitudes at all a.c.
system bus bars,
is a vector of the angles at all a.c. system bus bars
(except the reference bus which is assigned = 0)
x is a vector of d.c. variables
AC system eqns are derived from the ac operating conditions
with modification required to real & reactive power
mismatches at converter terminal bus bar.









where

Equations derived from ac system conditions




(mismatches at converter terminal bus bars are indicated
separately)

Eqns from dc system conditions

General AC-DC load flow problem is as





term refers to converter ac terminal bus bar
Formulation of ac-dc load flow equation based
on NR algorithm




term
= =[ J ] V
V
term
x

J is the matrix of first order partial derivatives
P
term
=

Q
term
=

Applying the ac fast decoupled assumptions to all
jacobian elements related to ac system eqns gives

Solution of AC-DC power flow
The solution methodology for AC-DC power flow
can be classified as
1. Simultaneous or unified
2. Sequential or alternating


In the first approach the AC & DC eqns are solved
simultaneously.



The matrices [B] & [B] are usual single phase FD
jacobians and are constant in value.
The jacobian element related to dc variables are non
constant and must be reevaluated at each iteration.

Iteration scheme is referred as -PDC,QDC-
In the second approach, the AC and DC
system equations are solved separately and
sequentially.



The AC system is solved to some degree of
convergence using a simple model for the DC
system based on its last solution.
The DC system is then solved using a
simplified representation of the AC system.
i.e. the ac system eqn are solved with the dc system
modeled simply as a real & reactive power injection
at the appropriate terminal bus bar(as a constant
active and reactive power source (or load) during the
AC solution)
Represent the AC system as a constant voltage,
constant angle model at every converter during dc
solution
The following three equations are solved
iteratively to convergence



Iteration scheme is referred as -P,Q,DC-

(i) Calculate P/V, solve equation and update.
(ii) Calculate Q/V solve equation and update V
(iii) Calculate d.c. residuals, R, solve equation and
update x
(iv) Return to (i).

During iterative process once the d.c residuals have
converged, the d.c system may be modeled simply as
fixed real and reactive power injections at the
appropriate converter terminal bus bar.
The d.c. residuals must still be checked after each a.c
iteration to ensure that the d.c. system remains
converged.

Alternate iteration sequence is given by
-P,DC,Q,DC-
The eqns are solved until all mismatches are with in
the tolerance


Convergence criterion

The normal criterion for convergence in ac load flow
is that the bus bar power mismatches should be
small,

i.e P
i
< for all PV &PQ bus bars
Q
i
< for all PQ bus bars

DC convergence tolerance
An acceptable p.u tolerance for the d.c residuals (d.c.
powers, voltages and currents) is typically 0.001 p.u on
a 100MVA base, i.e. the same as that normally
adopted for the ac system.
Multiterminal d.c system
Each additional converter adds a further 5 variables
and a set of 5 equations to the basic algorithm
developed for single converter.
Jacobian elements in the a.c system corresponding to
the converter terminal bus bar gets modified in the
solution
consider the multiterminal dc system shown in
fig
Real power - dc jacobian in the unified method has
the structure shown
P/V
Pterm1/Vterm1 term1


Pterm6/Vterm6 = [J] term6
R1 X1

R6 X6
Reactive power-dc jacobian has the structure shown

Q/V V
Qterm1/Vterm1 Vterm1


Qterm6/Vterm6 = [J] Vterm6
R1 X1

R6 X6
Eqn R(3) in each set of dc eqn is formed from dc
interconnection as follows