CHAPTER 3 - Water Supply

WATER SUPPLY
Environmental Engineering Sem1 2012/2013 1

INTRODUCTION
Environmental Engineering Sem 1 2012/2013
2
Malaysia was reported to receive rainfall of 324billion m
3
/year in year 2000
1
. It
distributed to surface runoff and evapo-transpiration about 152 billion m
3
/year
respectively and only 20 billion m
3
/year becomes groundwater.

Malaysias water status are diverse, increase and competing needs. However the
future forecast ( done by SMHB) indicated that water supply demand cannot be met
in many locations due to
uneven rainfall distribution, temporally or spatialy
degradation in the raw water supply catchments, because of Un-control opening of
forested areas (logging, roads, urbanizations) resulting in massive sedimentation
flow into rivers
Pollution in rivers as it passes urban areas, reaches between raw water source
catchment/storages & downstream water supply intake

1 -Ir Salmah Zakaria (2008) , Water Resources and Global Warming: Focus, Water Supply , Meeting of Water Supply
Senior Officer, Equatorial Hotel, KL.
INTRODUCTION
3
Humans are defending on water supply for the daily
basis routine. . Therefore we should not keep
throwing everything into the river. Consequently, the
cost of water treatment will be higher and not
affordable any longer. Freshwater is finite and water
should be treated as a commodity.

We should learn from other on what they have been
doing to have a sustainable water supply.
A Singapore Success Story
On 27 February 1977, at the opening of the
Upper Pierce Reservoir, the prime Minister,
Lee KuanYew said It should be a way of life
to keep the waters clean .. In ten years let us
have fishing in the Singapore River and in the
Kallang River.In October 1977, The Ministry
of the Environment , submitted an Action
Plan to the Prime Minister
Singapore River and in Kallang Basin
How did they do it?
-5,000 hawkers were relocated into food
centres
-26,000 squatter families were resettled to
HDB flats
-Moved factories to JTC, then only
-Removed more than 200 tonnesof rubbish
-Upgrade the riverside walkway along the
river
-Upgrade parking lots along rivers
-Developed recreational areas along rivers
-Sand was brought in to form beaches for
recreation
INTRODUCTION
Environmental Engineering Sem 2 2011/2012 4
In Malaysia, the worst water crisis happen in year 1998 for Klang Valley
residents. The main reasons for the water crisis were due:

development of the resource and treatment facilities could not meet the rapid
pace of urbanisation and industrialisation;
a prolonged drought causing the reduction of flows in the rivers and the
subsequent decrease in the reservoir levels;
the low flows in the rivers were insufficient to dilute the pollutant loads
resulting frequent closures of water treatment plants and
High water losses due to leakages in the distribution systems and pilferages

WATER QUANTITY REQUIREMENT
Water supply is required for domestic and industrial, agriculture, environment and Bio-
Diversity, hydropower, transportation and recreation.

In Malaysia at year 2007
2
, about 14,278 MLD water treated from 462 numbers of water
treatment plants. The water demand is 12,330 MLD, most serves for urban area
compared to rural .The water being used by 27 Million people.
2 -Ir Noor Azahari Zainal (2008) , Operational Aspects of WaterDemand Management- For Domestic & Industrial Use, Meeting of
Water Supply Senior Officer, Equatorial Hotel, KL.
2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050
Domestic &
Industrial
(mil m
3
/yr)
3483 5579 7423 8937 10268 11544
Irrigation
(mil m
3
/yr)
7350 6517 6517 6132 6132 6132
Total
(mil m
3
/yr)
10833 12086 13940 15069 16400 17676
Most of treated water was used for domestic and industrial besides agricultural. At year
2010 (Table 3. 1), the water consumption is slightly higher for irrigation, However by the
year 2020 to 2050, more treated water will be used for domestic and industrial activity.

Table 3.1: Water Demand for Malaysia from 2000 to 2050

WATER SOURCES
Groundwater Surface water
constant
composition
high mineral content
low turbidity
low color
low or no D.O.
CO
2
, H
2
S may be
present
high hardness
high Fe, Mn
variable composition
low mineral content
high turbidity
colored
D.O. present
low hardness
taste and odor
Clay, silt, NOM

Seawater

Groundwater
shallow wells
deep wells

Surface water
rivers
lakes
Reservoirs

Groundwater Vs Surface water
WATER TREATMENT
9
In practice, all public water supplies undergo some form of treatment, with the degree
of the treatment being dependent on the quality of the raw water supply.

The quality of treated water is now almost standardized in the developed world, with
treatment facilities having to satisfy many water quality parameters on a frequent
monitoring basis.

The aim of water treatment is to produce water;
That is palatable
esthetically pleasing
presence of chemicals does not pose a threat to human health
includes chloride, color, corrosivity, iron, manganese, taste and odor
That is potable
Safe to drink protective of human health
Not necessarily esthetically pleasing
That meets regulatory criteria/standards
Without interruption
At reasonable cost.

Raw Water
(average)
Treated
Water
Parameters Unit
pH 5.8 -6.9 6.5 - 9
Iron < 1.0 < 0.3
Turbidity 300 < 5
DO 4 - 7 8 -10
Manganese < 0.2 < 0.1
Suspended Solid 100 -
Color < 15
Aluminium < 0.1 < 0.2
Fluoride < 1.5 0.5 0.7
pH
mg/l
NTU
ppm
mg/l
mg/l
TCU
mg/l
ppm
Res. Chlorine - 1.5 2.5 ppm
300
Ammonia - < 1.5 ppm
TREATED WATER QUALITY STANDARD*
* SAJ Holdings Sdn Bhd
TYPES OF WATER TREATMENT PLANT
Objective: to remove turbidity and color from surface water
Plant : Filtration Plant /Coagulation Plant/Conventional Plant

Objective: to remove the hardness of the mineral
Plant : Softening Plant
Objective: to remove sulfide
Plant : Groundwater Plant
Well
Aeration
Air
CO
2
H
2
S

Storage P
Disinfectant

THE GENERAL PURPOSE OF WATER TREATMENT
PROCESS
Pre chlorination - used for disinfection of the raw water only if it does not result in
formation of thrihalomethane.
Pre sedimentation - To reduce silt and settleable organic matter prior to chemical
treatment
Coagulation - alum/ other chemicals are added to water to form tiny sticky
particle called floc.
Flocculation - is the process of the aggregation of the destabilized particles and
precipitation products.
Sedimentation - To remove the particles and precipitate by gravitational settling.
Filtration - To remove even smaller particles.
Flouridation - Fluoride is added into water to prevent incident in dental caries.
Disinfection - Chrorine/disinfectant is added to kill any bacteria or
microorganism that may be in the water.
Post Chlorination - To form and remain the residual chlorine in the distribution
system.
Activated Carbon - To remove odor and taste producing compound.
WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES
Water treatment processes are depending on the water sources. There are 4
classes of water treatment as shown in Table 3.2. The treatment processes may
be difference from one to another as shown in Table 3.3. The typical water
treatment process is shown in Figure 3.2.

Table 3.2 Classes of Water Treatment
Class Description Source
A
B

C

D
No treatment
Disinfection only

Standard Water Treatment

Special Water Treatment
Some borehole water
Occasional upland water
Some borehole water
Occasional upland water
Lowland rivers and reservoirs
Some rural supplies (Fe and Mn), Colour removal
Trace element removal, Industrial Water
Electronics industry requirement, Algae removal
Organic removal
WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES
Treatment
Categorization
Groundwater
Supply Class B
Standard Water Treatment
Class C
Special Water Treatment
Class D
Intake Intake Intake
Pre treatment Aeration Coarse screening, Fine
Screening,Pumping ,
Storage,Equalization,
Neutralization,Aeration
Chemical pre-treatment
Screening, Pumping,
Storage, Equalization
Neutralization, Aeration
Softening, Algae removal
Primary
Treatment
Coagulation and mixing
Flocculation, Sedimentation
Coagulation and mixing,
Flocculation,Sedimentation
Secondary
treatment
Filtration Filtration
Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection Disinfection
Advance
Treatment
Adsorption,Activated
carbon,Membrane Process
Halogenated compound
removal, Fe and Mn removal
Fluoridation Fluoridation Fluoridation Fluoridation
Distribution
network
Yes Yes Yes
Table 3.3 Flow Chart Outline of Water Treatment Processes
What are the common raw
water sources used in
Malaysia?

As an engineer, you are
asked to select the
appropriate water
treatment plant.
What will be your
selection? Why?
List the primary treatment.

What are the common raw water sources
used in Malaysia?
Answer : River water and lake
As an engineer, you are asked to select the
appropriate water treatment plant.
What will be your selection?
Answer : Coagulation plant/ Conventional plant ( Refer Slide 19,
the common practice in Malaysia)
Why?
Answer : We use the river water as an intake
List the primary treatment.
Answer: Coagulation and mixing Flocculation, Sedimentation
Clean Water Tank
Disinfection
& Re-adjustment
Hydrated Lime
Chlorine
Flouride
Filtration
Flocculation
Tank
Consumer
Pump station
Balancing Tank
Aerator
Distribution Tank Distribution Tank
Consumer
Chemical
Pre-Treatment
Chemical Dosage
Hydrated Lime-Softening
Alum- Coagulation
Raw water source
Intake
Sedimentation
Tank
- - - Our concern
Raw water intakes withdraw water from a
river, lake, or reservoir ( surface water source)
over a predetermined range of pool levels.

Intake site selections depend on :
Water quality
Water depth
Stream or current velocities
Access
Power availability
Proximity to water treatment plant
Environmental impact
Hazard to navigate

Raw water intake structures control
withdrawal of raw water from a surface water
source. Intake structure contains gates,
screens, control valves, pumps, chemical
feeders, flow meters, offices and machine
shop.
Intake design consideration;
Intake velocity
High velocities head loss,
entrain suspended matter, trap
fish, and other aquatic animals.
Velocity below 8 cm/s allows
aquatic animal to escape, and
minimize the suspended matter
Intake-port location- Water
quality in each stratum may vary.
To achieve, multiple intake ports
set at various levels are generally
provided
Top intake less than 2 m below
normal level.
Bottom intake least 1 m above
the bottom
Gates - Usually sluice gates .
Large cast iron gates that slide
vertically on a guide track.
INTAKE
Types of intake structures; floating intake ( Figure 3.3), submerged intake,
pier intake, tower intake ( Figure 3.4), exposed or tower intake and shore
intake

Figure 3.4: Tower intake
Figure 3.3 Floating intake
INTAKE
AERATION
To create turbulence to provide for the maximum contact between water and air
to achieve desired dissolved oxygen content at ambient temperature and
pressure .

It can be a simple mechanical process of spraying water into the air and allowing
it to fall over a series of cascades (waterfalls) ( Figure 3.5), multiple platform
aerator- tray ( Figure 3.6) venturi aerator, draft-tube aerator while absorbing or
desorbing oxygen in its journey.

Figure 3.5 Cascade Figure 3.6 Tray

24
To supply of O
2
from the atmosphere to water to effect beneficial changes
in the water quality.
To release excess H
2
S gas which may cause undesirable tastes and odor.
To release excess CO
2
which may have corrosive tendencies on concrete
materials.
To increase the O
2
content of water which may have negative taste, color
and stain properties due to the presence of Fe and Mn in solution ( Mostly
for groundwater) . The addition of oxygen assists the precipitation of Fe and
Mn as following:
AERATION
4Fe
2+
+ O
2
+ 10 H
2
0 4 Fe(OH)
3

(s)
+ 8H
+

2Mn
2+
+ O
2
+ 2 H
2
0 2 MnO
2

(s)
+ 4H
+

AERATION
Example

Parit Raja Water Treatment Plant has a plant capacity of 60 MLD. Calculate
the required water surface area of a cascade used for aeration.

Solution:

To calculate exposed water surface area, we used design criteria of 10 m
2
of
exposed water surface for every 50L/s of design flow.

Design capacity = 10 m
2
of exposed water surface
50 L/s of designed flow
Water surface area = 10 m
2
x 60 MLD
50 L/s
= 10 m
2
x 60 x 10
6
L/D
50 L x 60 s x 60 min x 24 hr
s min hr day
= 10 m
2
_x 60 x 10
6
L/D
4320000 L/D
= 138.8 ~ 140 m
2

SOFTENING
The removal of ions that cause hardness is called SOFTENING. This process is
common for groundwater source.

Hardness in natural waters comes from the dissolution of minerals from geologic
formation that contain calcium and magnesium . Two common minerals are calcite and
dolomite. The natural process by which water become hard is shown below.

SOFTENING
Hardness is a term often used to characterize the ability of a water to:
ocause soap scum
Ca
2+
+ (Soap)
-

Ca(Soap)
2

(s)

oincrease the amount of soap needed
ocause scaling on pipes
ocause valves to stick due to the formation of calcium carbonate crystals
oleave stains on plumbing fixtures

Description Hardness range (mg/L as CaCO
3
)
Extremely soft 0 - 50
Very soft 50 100
Moderately
hard
100 150
Hard 150 - 300
Very hard > 300
Total Hardness (TH)
Technically - the sum of
all polyvalent cations
Practically - the amount
of calcium and
magnesium ions (the
predominant minerals in
natural waters)
(TH = Ca
2+
+ Mg
2+
)
It is divided into
carbonate (CH) and
noncarbonate hardness
(NCH), (TH = CH + NCH)
SOFTENING
Carbonate Hardness (CH)
associated with HCO
3
-
, CO
3
2-

CH = TH or Total alkalinity, whichever is less
Often called "temporary hardness" because heating the water will remove
it. When the water is heated, the insoluble carbonates will precipitate and
tend to form bottom deposits in water heaters.
Ca
2+
+ 2HCO
3
-
CaCO
3(s)
+ CO
2(g)
+ H
2
O

Non-Carbonate Hardness
NCH = TH - CH
If Alkalinity > Total hardness, then NCH = 0
Called permanent hardness because it is not removed when the water is
heated. It is much more expensive to remove non-carbonate hardness than
carbonate hardness.
Ca
2+
, Mg
2+
associated with other ions, Cl
-
, NO
3
-
, SO
4
2-

SOFTENING
Ion Conc.
mg/L
M.W.
mg/mmol
(n(
Eq. Wt.
mg/meq
Conc.
meq/L
(ion conc. / EW)
Conc.
mg/L as
CaCO
3

Ca
2+
40.0 40.1 2 20.05 1.995 99.8*
Mg
2+
10.0 24.3 2 12.15 0.823 41.2
Na
+
11.8 23.0 1 23.0 0.510 25.7
K
+
7.0 39.1 1 39.1 0.179 8.95
HCO
3
-
110.0 61.0 1 61.0 1.800 90.2
SO
4
2-
67.2 96.1 2 48.05 1.400 69.9
Cl
-
11.0 35.5 1 35.5 0.031 15.5
Example
A sample of water having a pH of 7.2 has the following concentrations of ions
Ca
2+
40 mg/L
Mg
2+
10 mg/L
Na
+
11.8 mg/L
K
+
7.0 mg/L
HCO
3
-
110 mg/L
SO
4
2-
67.2 mg/L
Cl
-
11 mg/L
Calculate the TH, CH, NCH, Alkalinity, and construct a bar chart of the constituents

Solution

*Sample Calculation: Concentration of Ca
2+
in mg/L as CaCO
3
= (Concentration in meq/L) *
(Equivalent Weight of CaCO
3
) = (1.995 meq/L) X (50 mg/meq) = 99.8 mg/L as CaCO
3

SOFTENING
Check Solution
E(Cation)s = E(Anion)s
175.6 = 175.6
Note: to within 10% mg/L as CaCO
3

Total Hardness
= E of multivalent cations
= (Ca
2+
) + (Mg
2+
)
= 99.8 + 41.2
= 141 mg/L as CaCO
3

Alkalinity = (HCO
3
2-
) + (CO
3
2-
) + (OH
-
) - (H
+
)
Since pH = 7.2 (neutral pH, OH
-
& H
+
are negligible)
Alkalinity ~ (HCO
3
2-
) = (1.80 x 10
-3
) eq/L
Alkalinity = (1.80 x

10
-3

eq/L)(50 g/eq)(1000 mg/g)
= 90.1 mg/L as CaCO
3

Carbonate Hardness (the portion of the hardness associated with
carbonate or bicarbonate)
Alkalinity = 90.1 mg/L as CaCO
3

TH = 141 mg/L as CaCO
3

CH = 90.1 mg/L as CaCO
3

(Note: if TH < Alk then CH = TH; and NCH = 0 )

Non-carbonate Hardness
NCH = TH - CH = 141 - 90.1 =50.9 mg/L as CaCO
3

SOFTENING
Softening can be accomplished by the lime soda process, ion exchange,
nanofiltration and reverse osmosis. Lime soda softening is discussed in this chapter.

Lime-Soda Softening
-it is possible to calculate the chemical doses necessary to remove hardness
-hardness precipitation is based on the following two solubility reaction:
Ca
2+
+ HCO
3
2-
CaCO3 (s)
Objective: to percipitate calcium as
CaCO
3
.In order to percipitate,
the water must pH 10.3
Mg
2+
+ 2OH
-
MgOH2 (s)
In order to percipitate,
The water must pH 11
To supply hydroxyl ions, the
economic way is to buy LIME ( CaO)
, then mix with water to produce
Ca(OH)
2
(hydrated lime)
SOFTENING
Softening Reactions

The softening reactions are regulated by controlling the pH.
FIRST any free acids are neutralized
THEN- pH is raised to precipitate the CaCO
3
; if necessary
- pH is raised further to remove Mg(OH)
2
FINALLY if necessary, CO
3
2-
is added to precipitate the noncarbonate hardness

1
2
3
4
5
6
Six important softening reactions
are shown.

In each case, the chemical that has
been added to the water is printed
in bold type.

Designation (s) is for solid, hence
indicates that the substance has
been removed from the water.

In reality they occur
simultaneously.

SOFTENING
Magnesium is MORE EXPENSIVE to remove than calcium, then we leave as much Mg
2+
as
possible in the water.

The removal of noncarbonate hardness is MORE EXPENSIVE , because we must add the
CO
3
2-
( in term of SODA) therefore we leave as much noncarbonate hardness as possible
in the water.

Traditionally, the final total hardness is set of 75 to 120 mg/L as CaCO
3
, however due to
the economic constraints, many utilities will operate at total hardness of 140 -150 mg/L
as CaCO
3.

Concurrent removal of other species
Natural Organic Matter (NOM)
Turbidity
Other metals

Limitation
Because of the solubility of CaCO3 (s) and
MgOH2 (s), ideal mixing is prohibited some
hardness ions remain in solution
insufficient time for reactions
Minimum Ca hardness ~ 30 mg/L as CaCO
3

Minimum Mg hardness ~ 10 mg/L as CaCO
3

(1) NEUTRALIZATION OF CARBONIC ACID(H
2
CO
3
)
- Add lime
- To neutralize any free acids ( acid carbonic) that may be present in the water
- NO hardness is removed in this step
CO
2
+ Ca(OH)
2
CaCO
3(s)
+ H
2
O

SOFTENING
(2) PRECIPITATION OF CARBONATE HARDNESS DUE TO CALCIUM
-add lime
-pH must be raised up to 10.3 to percipitate the calcium carbonate
-To achieve this pH , convert all of the bicarbonate to carbonate
-The carbonate then serves as common ion for percipitation reaction
Ca
2+
+ 2HCO
3
-
+ Ca(OH)
2
2CaCO
3(s)
+ 2H
2
O
With the aid of chemical
equation, show the
formation of carbonic acid

SOFTENING
(3) Precipitation of carbonate hardness due to magnesium

Must add more lime to achieve a pH about 11.
The reaction may be considered to occur in two
stages.
First stage occurs when we convert all of the
bicarbonate to carbonate
Mg
2+
+ 2HCO
3
-
+ Ca(OH)
2
MgCO
3
+ CaCO
3(s)
+ 2H
2
O

It is SOLUBLE.so
the hardness of
water did not
CHANGE

Second stage- addition of more lime
Mg
2+
+ CO
3
2-
+ Ca(OH)
2
MgOH
2(s)
+ CaCO
3(s)

4) Removal Of Noncarbonate Hardness Due To Calcium
NO further increase in pH is required.
Provide additional carbonate in the form of soda ash
Ca
2+
+ Na
2
CO
3
CaCO
3(s)
+ 2Na
+

SOFTENING
5) Removal Of Noncarbonate Hardness Due To Magnesium
-First add lime

Mg
2+
+ Ca(OH)
2
MgOH
2(s)
+ Ca
2+

not much changes
in hardness . We
still HAVE Ca
2+

-to eliminate Ca
2+
, add soda

Ca
2+
+ Na
2
CO
3
CaCO
3(s)
+ 2Na
+

SOFTENING
Flow
diagram for
solving
softening
problem
( all
addition as
mg/L as
CaCO
3
)

SOFTENING
Example

From the water analysis presented below, determine the amount of lime and soda (mg/L
as CaCO
3
)

to soften the water to 120 mg/L as CaCO
3

.

Water composition (mg/L as CaCO
3
)
Ca
2+
= 149.2
CO
2
= 29.3
HCO
3
-
= 185.0
Mg
2+
= 65.8
SO
4
2-
=29.8
Na
+
= 17.4
Cl
-
= 17.6
Solution

1) Plot the bar chart as shown below

149.2 + 65.8
185 + 29.8
2) From the bar chart , we note
following

TH = 215 mg/L as CaCO
3
CH = 185 mg/L as CaCO
3
HOW??
if TH > alk CH = Alk
NCH = 30 mg/L as CaCO
3
HOW??
NCH = TH -CH

SOFTENING
3) Follow the logic of Figure in Slide 38, calculate the lime dose as follows

Step Dose (mg/L as CaCO
3
)
Lime = CO
2
29.3
Lime = HCO
3
-
185.0
Lime = Mg
2+
- 40 = 65.8 - 40
25.8
Lime = excess
25.8
TOTAL = 265.9
4) Calculate NCH
left
and NCH
removed

NCH
left
= final desired hardness 40 NCH
removed
= NCH NCH
left

Therefore,
NCH
left
= 120 40 = 80 mg/L

NCH
removed
= 30 80 = -50 ( negative is indicating there is no need to
remove NCH, no SODA required )
WHY COLLOIDS ARE
SUSPENDED IN SOLUTION

HOW TO REMOVE COLLOIDS
????

COAGULATION and FLOCCULATION
Surface water contains organic and inorganic particles.

Particle such as clay, and colloids remain in suspension without aggregating for
long periods of time. Consequently the particle cannot be removed by
sedimentation in a reasonable amount of time.

Majority of ions in surface water consist of negatively charged particle/colloids
which are stable in nature( stable = existing in ionized form) .

They repel other colloidal particles
before they collide with one
another. The colloids are
continually involved in Brownian
movement.


How to destabilize the particles???
Neutralize the charge by addition of an ion opposite to it ( Destabilization)
Destabilization (Coagulation)
( refer slide 29)
Particles
Flocculation
(Refer slide 30)
Al(OH)
3 (s)
@ Fe(OH)
3 (s)

Settle down at the bottom of
the flocculation tank
Al
3+
/
Fe
3+
Al
3+
/
Fe
3+

Coagulation process utilizes what is known as a chemical coagulant is mixed
thoroughly with the water and various species of the positively charged particles
adsorb to the negatively charged colloids such as colour, clay, turbidity and other
particles through the processes of charge neutralisation to produce microfloc.

Once the charge is neutralized, the small suspended particles are capable of sticking
together. The slightly larger particles, formed through this process and called
microflocs, are not visible to the naked eye.

The water surrounding the newly formed microflocs should be clear. If it is not, all the
particles' charges have not been neutralized, and coagulation has not been carried to
completion. More coagulant may need to be added.

Microfloc itself is not yet settleable , then flocculation process takes place.


Flocculation is the process in which the destabilised particles are
bound together by hydrogen bonding of Van der Waals forces to form larger
particle flocs.

High molecular weight
polymers, called coagulant
aids, may be added during
this step to help bridge,
bind, and strengthen the
floc, add weight, and
increase settling rate.
Once the floc has reached
it optimum size and
strength, the water is ready
for the sedimentation
process.

COAGULANT:
is the substance (chemical) that is added to the water to destabilize particles
and accomplish coagulation

PROPERTIES OF COAGULANT
o Trivalent cations

o Nontoxic: obvious for the production of safe water
o inexpensive
o Insoluble in the neutral pH. The coagulant that is added must percipitate out
of solution so that high concentration of the ion are not left in the water.
Such precipitation greatly influenced the colloidal removal process
Types of coagulant commonly used

Coagulant type examples
Inorganic metallic
coagulant
Aluminium sulfate (Al
2
(SO
4
)
3
14H
2
O, sodium
aluminate, aluminium chloride, ferric sulfate and
ferric chloride
Prehydrolyzed metal
salts
Made from alum and iron salts and hydroxide under
controlled condition; polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Organic polymers Cationic polymers, anionic polymers, and nonionic
polymers
Natural plant-based
materials
Opuntia spp. And Moringa Oleifera (used in many
parts of the world esp. developing country.
How does alum works?

In sufficient alkalinity in the water

1Al
2
(SO
4
)
3
14H
2
O + 6HCO
3
-
2Al(OH)
3
3H
2
O(s) + 6CO
2
+8H
2
O + 3SO
4
2-

1 mole of alum added uses 6 moles of alkalinity and produces 6 moles of CO2
Alum sludge , settle in the
flocculation tank
The above reaction shifts the
carbonate equilibrium and
decreases the pH

However, as long as sufficient
alkalinity is present and CO
2
(g) is
allowed to evolve, the pH is not
drastically reduced and is
generally not an operational
problem
HCO
3
-
+ H
+
= H
2
CO
3
(Acid Carbonic)
Example
Calculate the amount of alum sludge produced and alkalinity (HCO
3
-
) consumed when 1 mg/L alum was used.

Solution
Chemical reaction
Al
2
(SO
4
)
3
14H
2
O + 6HCO
3
-
2Al(OH)
3
(s) + 6CO
2
+ 8 H
2
O + 3SO
4
2-
+ 14H
2
O

Molecular weight( MW)
MW
alum
= 594 g/mole
MW
alkalinity
= 61 g/mole
MW
alum sludge
= 78 g/mole

Solid removed when 1 mg/L alum was used,
1 mg/L = 1.684 x 10
-6
moles/L
( 594 g/mole)(1000 mg/g)

Known that 1 mole/L alum yield 2 mole/L of alum sludge, therefore
Solid removed = 2 (1.684 x 10
-6
moles/L) ( 78 g/mole)
= 2.63 x 10
-4
g/L
= 0.26 mg/L

Alkalinity consumed when 1 mg/L alum was used,
Known that 1 mole/L alum yield 6 mole/L of alkalinity, therefore
Alkalinity removed = 6 (1.684 x 10
-6
moles/L) ( 61 g/mole)
= 61.6 mg/L HCO
3
-

Expressed in CaCO
3

= 61.6 mg/L HCO
3
-
x EW CaCO
3

EW HCO
3
-

= 61.6 mg/L HCO
3
-
x 50 g/eq
61 g/eq
= 50 .5 mg/L HCO
3
-
as CaCO
3

Example
A 50 mg/L alum dose is used to coagulate a turbid surface water. Calculate the amount of the
floc ( alum sludge) produces ( kg/d)
if the flow is 0.04 m
3
/s.

Solution

= 156 ( 50 g/m
3
)(0.04 m
3
/s) (24 x 3600 s/d) ( 1 kg/1000g)
594
= 45.4 kg/d

From chemical equation: Al
2
(SO
4
)
3
14H
2
O + 6HCO
3
-
2Al(OH)
3
(s) +
6CO
2
+ 8 H
2
O + 3SO
4
2-
+ 14H
2
O

Why trivalent cations
considered as good
coagulant?



Therefore, coagulation and flocculation designed to remove
Microorganisms and colloids that caused turbidity
Toxic compounds that are sorbed to particles
NOM (precursor of DBPs)
JAR test (Figure 3.6) is a laboratory works to illustrate the coagulation and
flocculation concepts associated to nature water. From this experiment the
optimal pH, coagulant dose ,and coagulant aid could be determined.
Example

A typical test is conducted by first dosing each jar with the same alum dose and varying the pH in each
jar. The result s are shown in below. Find the optimal pH, coagulant dose, and the theoretical amount of
alkalinity that would be consumed at the optimal dose.
Solution

1) Conduct the second jar test with pH 6.0 for six beakers ( Why 6? Refer to the jar which has the
lower turbidity in jar test 1). The results are shown below
2) Construct the graph
turbidity remaining vs alum
Dose

3) From the graph, the
optimal alum dosage was
estimated to be 12.5 mg/L


4) theoretical amount of alkalinity that would be consumed at the optimal dose.

TRY YOURSELF !!!!
REFER to SLIDE 50-51

Answer: 6.31 mg/L HCO
3
-
as CaCO
3


Effectiveness of
Coagulation

The crux of efficient
coagulation is the efficiency
of MIXING the coagulant
with the raw water.

Coagulation happens in two
mechanisms;
Adsorption/destabilization
of the soluble hydrolysis
species on the colloid and
destabilization
Sweep coagulation where
the colloid is trapped in the
hydroxide precipitate

Mixing equipment is need in coagulation. Why?
To dispersion of the coagulant into the raw water.
-Dispersion of the coagulant into water is called flash mixing or rapid mixing.
-Rapid mixing aims to produce the high G.

Common alternatives for mixing when the mechanism of coagulation is
adsorption/destabilization are;
Diffusion mixing by pressured water jets
In line mechanical mixing
In line static mixing

Common alternatives for mixing when the mechanism of coagulation is sweep
coagulation are;
Mechanical mixing in stirred tanks
Diffusion by pipe grid
Hydraulic mixing

Efficiency of MIXING is depending on the 1) velocity gradient and 2) mixing time

Velocity gradient, G
G , can be thought as the amount of shear taking place;

For coagulation, G must be higher enough. When chemical be added, the
different G should e take into the consideration.
Adsorption/destabilization: 3000 s
-1
< G < 5000 s
-1
, t = 0.5 s
Sweep coagulation : 600 s
-1
< G < 1000 s
-1
, 1 s < t < 10 s

Different chemicals require different velocity gradients

Power of mixture imparted to water could be calculated;

Power = G
2
Vu
where,
G = velocity gradient, s
-1

V = volume in m
3

u = dynamic viscosity of water, Pa.s


Mixing Time

The time that a fluid remains in the reactor and affects the degree to
which the reaction goes to completion.

In the ideal reactor,
t = V/Q

where ,
t = time ( in second)
V = volume ( m
3
)
Q = flowrate ( m
3
/s)

Adsorption/destabilization: t = 0.5 s
Sweep coagulation : 1 s < t < 10 s

note : real reactor do not behave as ideal reactor because of density
difference due to temperature or other causes.

Example
A rapid mixer is used for the dispersion of the coagulant to achieve the
adsorption/destabilization reaction. If the water ( temperature 17
0
C) flows at
300 MLD, determine the volume of coagulation tank. Calculate the power.
Given ; velocity gradient, G = 2000 s
-1

Solution
For the adsorption/destabilization reaction, t should be fixed as 0.5 s.
Volume = Q t
= ( 300 x 10
6
L) ( 0.5 s x d x hr x min )
d 24 hr 60 min 60 s
= 1740 L x m
3

1000L
= 1.74 m
3

Refer to water properties, dynamic viscosity of water @17
0
C =1.081 x 10
-3
Pa.s

Power = G
2
Vu
= (2000)
2
(1.74) (1.081 x 10
-3
)
= 7524 Watt
Note: recalculate the power by assuming the temperature of water is 25
0
C. Give
comment.

Effectiveness of Flocculation

The crux of efficient flocculation is the efficiency of MIXING to bring the particles into
contact with one another so that they will collide, stick together and grow to a size
that will readily settle. The mixing to to flocculate the coagulated water.

For flocculation, high enough to cause particles contact and keep the floc from
settling but low enough to prevent the floc from tearing apart.

Mixing Time

For conventional treatment where settling follows flocculation, the flocculation
times ranges from 20 -40 minutes.

Efficiency of MIXING is depending on the 1) velocity gradient and 2)mixing time.

Velocity gradient, G


Flocculation is normally accomplished with

1) paddle flocculator or 2) baffled chamber
2) baffled chamber
Coagulation Flocculation Sedimentation

The Recommended Standards for Water Works Great Lakes Upper Missisippi River
Board of State Sanitary Engineers ( GLUMRB) recommended the criteria for
flocculation tank.

1. Inlet and outlet design shall prevent short circuiting and destruction of floc

2. Minimum flow-through velocity shall not be less than 2.5 to 7.5 mm/s with the
detention time for floc formation of at least 30 min.

3. Agitators shall be drivenby variable speed drives with the peripheral speed of
paddles ranging from 0.15 to 0.91 m/s

4. Flocculation and sedimentation basin shall be asa close together as possible

1) In flocculation tank, flow-through
velocity is normally to 2.5 - 75
mm/s. Explain what will be happen
if the velocity is less than 2.5 mm/s
and more than 7.5 mm/s.

1) In designing a flocculation tank,
which one of the following
parameters take more priority:
horizontal /flow through veloccity
or detention time?

2) Flocculation and settling tanks
should be as close as possible .
Why?

SEDIMENTATION

oSedimentation basin =
clarifier = settling tank
oWater flows into the
settling basins, where the
flow is almost devoid of
turbulence.
oThe water resides here for
time periods ranging from 2
to 8 hours and flocculated
particles settle out as
sludge
oThe sludge is mechanically
removed periodically
oSedimentation basin are
usually rectangular or
circular with either a radial
or upward water flow
pattern.

The key parameters and typical values in the design
of settling tank are:
- surface over flow rate 20- 35 m
3
/day/m
2

- detention times 2-8 h
- weir overflow rate 150 300 m
3
/day/m
Either
rectangular or
circular ,
normally 1
unit
sedimentation
system
comprises of 2
tanks
SEDIMENTATION

oThe design can be divided into
four zones: inlet, settling, outlet
and sludge storage

Inlet zone - to evenly distribute
the flow and suspended
particles across the section of
the settling zone*

Sludge storage zone- depends
upon the method of cleaning,
the frequency of cleaning and
the quantity of sludge
estimated to be produced.

Outlet zone- to remove the
settled water from the basin
with out carrying away any of
the floc particles

Zones of sedimentation: (a) horizontal flow
clarifier , (b) upflow clarifier
*
*
SEDIMENTATION

Three classes of sedimentation

Types Description Example
Water treatment Wastewater treatment
I Settling as discrete
particles at a
constant
settling velocity
No flocculation
during
sedimentation

1. Pre-sedimentation
2. in filter bed after
backwashing
1. grit chamber
II Particles that
aggregated or
flocculate during
sedimentation

Sedimentation after
alum or iron
coagulation

1. Primary
sedimentation
2. In settling tanks
after trickling
filtration
3. In upper portions of
secondary clarifiers
after activated
sludge treatment

SEDIMENTATION

Ty
pes
Description Example
Water treatment Wastewater treatment
III Particles settle as a
zone or blanket
Usually have a clear
interface between the
settling sludge and the
clarified effluent

settling in lime soda
ash sedimentation
1. activated sludge
sedimentation
2. sludge thickeners
SEDIMENTATION
Ideal sedimentation basins (Type 1)- UPFLOW CLARIFIER

settling velocity, v
s

of the particle to be removed
Velocity of water decreases as the water flows upward (overflow rate = v
o
,
hydraulic surface loading)

Velocity of the particle remains unchanged
If v
s
> v
o
, then 100% of particles remain in tank
If v
s
< v
o
, then 0% of particles remain in tank
SEDIMENTATION
Example
The settling velocity of calcium carbonate floc formed during flocculation is 2.1
mm/s. If the detention time in the settling zone is 1.0 h and upflow rate is 1.75
GPM/sq ft, what is the minimum depth of water required to ensure removal of
the floc by gravity settling. Given, I ft = 0.3048 m, 1.0 US gal =3.785L

Solution
1.75 GPM/ ft
2
= 1.18 mm/s
AV = 2.1 -1.18 mm/s
= 0.92 mm/s

Velocity = depth/ hour
Depth = (velocity )( hour)
=( 0.92 mm/s) ( 1 h)
= 3.3 m

SEDIMENTATION
Example
Calculate the diameter and depth of a circular clarifier for a design flow of 3800 m
3
/d and an
overflow rate of 0.00024 m/s and a detention time of 3 h. Calculate the weir loading rate by
assuming the total effluent weir is 20 m.

Solution
Volume , V = Qt
= (3800 m
3
/d) ( 3/24)
= 475 m
3

Q = 3800 m
3
/d = 0.044 m
3
/s

Surface overflow rate = Q/A
0.00024 m/s = 0.044 m
3
/s
A m
2

Area, A = 183.3 m
2

Volume, V = AD
D =V/A
= 475 m
3
/183.3 m
2

= 2.59 m
Diameter = 15.3 m
Weir loading rate = Q/ L
w

= 3800 m
3
/d
20 m
= 190 m
3
/day.m ( OK!)
SEDIMENTATION

Ideal sedimentation basins (Type 1)- REGTANGULAR BASIN
Particle removal is dependent on
the overflow rate, v
0

In order for particle to be removed
settling velocity , v
s
must be
sufficient so that it reaches the
bottom during the time the water
resides in the tank (t
d
).
If V
s
= V
o
, then
v
s
> v
0
, 100 %

particles should be

easily removed
v
s
= v
0
, 100 %

particles

removed
v
s
< v
0
,
some fraction of the particles will be removed P = 100 v
s

v
0

SEDIMENTATION
Example
A water treatment plant has a horizontal flow sedimentation tank with an
overflow rate of 17 m3/d. m2 and wishes to remove particles that have settling
velocities of 0.1 mm/s. What percentage of removal should be expected for each
particle in an ideal sedimentation tank?

Solution
v
s
= 0.1 mm/s

v
0
= 17 m3/d. m2 = ? mm/s, ( do the conversion so, v
0
= 0.2 mm/s

Note that
v
s
< v
0
,
P = 100 v
s

/ v
o
= 100 ( 0.1)/(0.2) = 50%

Recalculate by considering v
0

are

0.2 mm/s and 1 mm/s respectively.
SEDIMENTATION
Example

Determine the surface area of a sedimentation tank . The design
flow is 0.044 m
3
/s. Use a design overflow rate of 20 m / day.
Find the depth of the sedimentation for the given overflow rate
and detention time.

Solution:

1)Find the surface area.

First change the flow rate to compatible units.
(0.044 m
3
/ s)(86,400 s / day) = 3801.6 m
3
/day
The surface area is = 3801.6 m
3
/day
20 m/ day
=190.m
2

2) Find the length to width dimension
Common length-to-width , L: W ratios ( 2:1 < L:W < 5:1 , and
lengths seldom exceed 100 m. A minimum of two tanks is always
provided.

use two tanks, each with a width of 5 m, a total surface area of
190 m
2
,

Length = 190 m
2
/(2 tanks)(5 m wide) = 19 m
meet our length-to-width ratio of 3.8 : 1 ( OK!)
Tank 1 Tank 2
Flocculation tank
S
e
d
i
m
e
n
t
a
t
i
o
n

t
a
n
k

S
e
d
i
m
e
n
t
a
t
i
o
n

t
a
n
k

Tank 1
L= 19m,
W = 5 m
Tank 2
L= 19m,
W = 5 m
Q = 3801.6 m
3
/day
SEDIMENTATION
3) Find the tank depth.

Rule of thumb that the detention time should be 2-8 h.
Assumed the detention time of 120 min

Q = V/t
V = Q t
V = (1900.8 m
3
)(120 min)( d ) = 158 m
3
d 1440 min
Depth= 158 m
3
=1.684 m,= 1.7 m
95 m
2

The final design would then be two tanks, each having the following dimensions:
5 m wide x 19 m long x 1.7 m deep plus sludge storage depth.

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Environmental Engineering Sem1 2012/2013 1

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