INTRODUCTION

Manufacturing is the industrial activity that changes the form of raw materials to create
products or in other word manufacturing has been accurately defined as the activities that
are performed in the conversion of stuff to useful thing (product). It is the application
of physical and chemical processes to alter the geometry, property and/or appearances of
given starting material to make part or product.
The derivation of the word manufacture reflects its original meaning: to make by hand. As
the power of the hand tool is limited, manufacturing is done largely by machinery today.
Manufacturing technology constitutes all methods used for shaping the raw metal materials
into a final product.
The development of new tool materials opened a new era for the machining industry in
which machine tool development took place.
CLASSIFICATION OF MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

METAL MACHINING
Machining is the removal of the unwanted material (machining allowance) from the
work piece (WP), so as to obtain a finished product of the desired size, shape, and
surface quality. The practice of removal of machining allowance through cutting
techniques was first adopted using simple handheld tools made from bone, stick, or
stone, which were replaced by bronze or iron tools. Water, steam, and later electricity
were used to drive such tools in power-driven metal cutting machines (machine tools).

The importance of machining processes can be emphasized by the fact that every
product use in our daily life has undergone this process either directly or indirectly. It
is important to understand the metal cutting process in order to make the best use of
it.
METAL MACHINING (.CONT.)
In the metal working industries work piece of different shape, dimension and
materials are worked. The various working processes to make these fall into two
groups :

Metal Working
Chip-less Process (Metal
Forming) e.g. forging,
pressing , drawing etc.
Chip Forming Process
(Metal Cutting) e.g.
turning, drilling, milling
etc.
METAL MACHINING (.CONT.)
A Cutting tool may be used either for cutting apart, as with a knife, or for removing
chips. Part are produced by removing metal mostly in the form of small chips.

All cutting tools can be divided into two groups they are:
1) Single point cutting tools
2) Multi-Point cutting tools

Single point cutting tool having a wedge like action find, a wide application on lathe,
and slotting machine. Multi point cutting tools are merely two or more single point
tools arrange together as a unit.
TYPE OF CUTTING TOOLS
METAL MACHINING (.CONT.)
SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOLS FOR LATHE MACHINE
METAL MACHINING (.CONT.)
MULTI POINT CUTTING TOOLS
METAL MACHINING (.CONT.)
MULTI POINT CUTTING TOOLS
METAL MACHINING (.CONT.)
MECHANICS OF CUTTING AND CHIP FORMATION
In figure tool is considered stationary, and the work-piece moves to the right.
The metal is severely compressed in the area in the front of cutting tool. The
metal in front of the tool rake face gets immediately compressed, first elastically
and plastically. This zone is traditionally called shear zone.
METAL MACHINING (.CONT.)
CHIP F0RMATION
The metal in front of the tool rake face gets
immediately compressed first elastically and
then plastically.
The actual separation of the metal starts as a
yielding or fracture, depending upon the
cutting conditions, starting from the cutting
tool tip.
The chip after sliding over the tool rake face
would be lifted away from the tool, and the
resultant curvature of the chip is termed as
chip curl.

METAL MACHINING (.CONT.)
Mechanics of cutting and Chip
Formation
Metal cutting as a slide of card which would slide over one
another as the wedge shape tool moves under these cards
as shown in figure.
TYPE OF CHIPS
The chip is variable both in size and shape in actual manufacturing practice.
Study of chip is one of the most important things in metal cutting.
TYPE OF CHIP (.CONTD.)
FOUR BASIC TYPES OF CHIP IN MACHINING
Whether the cutting condition can be, the chip produced may belong to one of the
following type :

1. Discontinuous chip
2. Continuous chip
3. Continuous chip with Built-up Edge (BUE)
4. Serrated chip
TYPE OF CHIP (.CONTD.)
Brittle work materials
Low cutting speeds
Large feed and depth of cut
High tool-chip friction
DISCONTINUOUS CHIPS
TYPE OF CHIP (.CONTD.)
DISCONTINUOUS CHIPS
Discontinuous Chip
When brittle materials like cast iron are
cut, the deformed material gets fractured
very easily and thus the chip produced is in
the form of discontinuous segments.
Cutting force becomes unstable with the
variation coinciding with the fracturing
cycle.
Higher depths of cut (large chip thickness),
low cutting speeds and small rake angles
are likely to produce discontinuous chips.

TYPE OF CHIP (.CONTD.)
Ductile work materials
High cutting speeds
Small feeds and depths
Sharp cutting edge
Low tool-chip friction
CONTINUOUS CHIPS
TYPE OF CHIP (.CONTD.)
CONTINUOUS CHIPS
Continuous chips are usually formed at high rake
angles and/or high cutting speeds.
A good surface finish is generally produced.
Continuous chips are not always desirable, particularly
in automated machine tools,
Tend to get tangled around the tool
Operation has to be stopped to clear away the chips.
TYPE OF CHIP (.CONTD.)
CONTINUOUS CHIP FORMATION
CONTINUOUS WITH BUE
Ductile materials
Low-to-medium cutting speeds
Tool-chip friction causes portions of
chip to adhere to rake face
BUE forms, then breaks off,
cyclically
CONTINUOUS WITH BUE
BUE consists of layers of material from the workpiece that are
gradually deposited on the tool.

BUE then becomes unstable and eventually breaks up

BUE material is carried away on the tool side of the chip

The rest is deposited randomly on the workpiece surface.

BUE results in poor surface finish

Reduced by increasing the rake angle and therefore decreasing the
depth of cut.
SERRATED CHIPS
Semi continuous - saw-tooth
appearance

Cyclical chip forms with alternating
high shear strain then low shear
strain

Associated with difficult-to-machine
metals at high cutting speeds
CHIPS PRODUCED IN TURNING
Various chips produced in turning: (a) tightly curled chip; (b) chip hits workpiece and
breaks; (c) continuous chip moving away from workpiece; and (d) chip hits tool shank
and breaks off. Source
THIN AND THICK SHEAR MODEL
METHODS OF MACHINING
There are method of metal cutting, depending upon the arrangement of the cutting
edge with respect to the direction of relative work-tool motion:
1. Orthogonal cutting or two dimensional cutting
2. Oblique cutting or three dimensioning cutting
Orthogonal cutting take place when the cutting face of the tool is 90 to the line of
action or path of the tool. If, however, the cutting face is inclined at an angle less than
(other than 90) 90 to the path of tool, the cutting action is known as oblique.
Orthogonal cutting or two
dimensional cutting
METHODS OF MACHINING
In orthogonal cutting, the cutting edge of the cutting tool is
arrange perpendicular to the cutting velocity (V), where in
oblique cutting, it set at some angle other than 90 to the
cutting velocity (v), which gives an inclination angle . The
analysis of oblique cutting being very complex, the relatively
simple arrangement of orthogonal cutting is, therefor, widely
used in theoretical and experimental work

Oblique cutting is more practical while orthogonal cutting is
convenient for analysis.


METHODS OF MACHINING (CONTD.)

METHODS OF MACHINING (CONTD.)

Orthogonal Cutting Model
Simplified 2-D model of machining that describes the
mechanics of machining fairly accurately
Chip Thickness Ratio
c
o
t
t
r
where r = chip thickness ratio; t
o
= thickness of the chip prior to chip formation; and
t
c
= chip thickness after separation

Chip thickness after cut always greater than before, so chip ratio always
less than 1.0

METHODS OF MACHINING (CONTD.)

=

=
Chip Thickness Ratio
c
o
t
t
r
Based on the geometric parameters of the orthogonal
model, the shear plane angle can be determined as:

sin
cos
tan
r
r

1
where r = chip ratio, and = rake angle

MECHANICS OF ORTHOGONAL CUTTING


The current analysis is based on Merchant's
thin shear plane model considering the
minimum energy principle.
This model would be applicable at very
high cutting speeds, which are generally
practiced in production

ASSUMPTIONS

The tool is perfectly sharp and no contact along the clearance
face.
The surface where shear is occurring is a plane.
The cutting edge is a straight line extending perpendicular to the
direction of motion and generates a plane surface as the work
moves past it.
The chip does not flow to either side or no side spread.
Uncut chip thickness is constant.
Width of the tool is greater than the width of the work.
A continuous chip is produced without any BUE.
Work moves with a uniform velocity.
The stresses on the shear plane are uniformly distributed

FORCES AND MECHANICS OF CUTTING
Why should we know?
Power requirement for the machine tool can be
calculated
Design of stiffness, etc. for the machine
tolerances
Whether work piece can withstand the cutting
force
Fs = force which is the resistance to shear of the metal in forming the chip. It acts along
the shear plane.
Ns = Normal to the shear plane. This is the backup force on the chip provided by the work
piece.
N = force at the tool tip interface acting normal to the cutting face of the tool and is
provided by the tool
F = Is the frictional resistance of the tool acting on the chip. It act downward against the
motion of the chip as it glides upward along the tool face.
R and R are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.

Fig. a
MERCHANT CIRCLE
The two orthogonal component (horizontal and vertical) FH and FV of the resultant force
R can be measure by using dynamometer. The horizontal component is the cutting force
FH and the vertical component is the thrust force Fv.
All these force can be represented with the help of a circle known as Merchant force
circle
Fig, b
MERCHANT CIRCLE
Here the two force triangle have been superimpose by placing the two
equal force R and R together. In the figure, is the angle of friction. In this
diagram, for the convenience the resultant force have been moved to the
point of the tool. Since the force FH and Fv are at right angle to each other,
their intersection lies on a circle diameter R. The force F and N may be
placed in the diagram as shown to form the circle diagram.
Now : firm fig. b and c


Fig. c

Force Fs and Ns are right angle to each other

1.

.2

..3
from Fig. d
Fv
N
F

4

..................
5
.6
7

.8
Putting the value of Ns (from eq. 3) in this both equations (7 and 8)

...9


.
10
1
1

MINIMUM ENERGY CONDITION

2 2
45


Or
WHAT THE MERCHANT EQUATION TELLS US
To increase shear plane angle
Increase the rake angle
Reduce the friction angle (or coefficient of friction)
Effect of Higher Shear Plane Angle
Higher shear plane angle means smaller shear plane which means lower
shear force, cutting forces, power, and temperature
2 2
45


Effect of shear plane angle : (a) higher with a resulting lower shear plane area; (b) smaller
with a corresponding larger shear plane area. Note that the rake angle is larger in (a), which tends
to increase shear angle according to the Merchant equation
POWER AND ENERGY RELATIONSHIPS

Where: D= Dia. Of job

N= Velocity of job or tool rev/min