Electric Drives Lecture Overview

Electric Drives
Lecture One

Introduction

In some countries nearly 65% of the total
electric energy produced is consumed by
electric motors.

Some Applications of Electric
Drives
Electric Propulsion
Pumps, fans, compressors
Plant automation
Flexible manufacturing systems
Spindles and servos
Appliances and power tools
Cement kilns
Paper and pulp mills; textile mills
Automotive applications
Conveyors, elevators, escalators, lifts
1. ENERGY CONVERSION IN ELECTRIC
DRIVES
1.1. ELECTRIC DRIVES - A DEFINITION
Figure 1.1. Constant speed
electric drive
About 50% of electrical energy produced is used in electric drives today.
Electric drives may run at constant speed (figure 1.1) or at variable speed
(figure 1.2).
Figure 1.2. Variable speed
electric drive
1.2. APPLICATION RANGE OF ELECTRIC
DRIVES

A summary of main industrial applications and power range of electric drives is
shown on figure 1.3.
Figure 1.3. Electric drives - variable speed applications
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC DRIVES - MODULE 1
Overview of AC and DC drives
Energy/Cost Savings
System efficiency can be increased from
15% to 27% by introducing variable-
speed drive operation in place of
constant-speed operation.
For a large pump variable-speed drive,
payback period ~ 3-5 years whereas
operating life is ~ 20 years.
Electric Machines
An engineer designing a high-performance
drive system must have intimate knowledge
about machine performance and Power
Electronics

Electric Machines (contd)
DC Machines - shunt, series, compound,
separately excited dc motors and
switched reluctance machines
AC Machines - Induction, wound rotor
synchronous, permanent magnet
synchronous, synchronous reluctance,
and switched reluctance machines.
Special Machines - switched reluctance
machines
Electric Machines (contd)
All of the above machines are
commercially available in fractional kW
to MW ranges except permanent-magnet,
synchronous, synchronous reluctance,
and switched reluctance which are
available up to 150 kW level.
Selection Criteria for Electric
Machines
Cost
Thermal Capacity
Efficiency
Torque-speed profile
Acceleration
Power density, volume of motor
Ripple, cogging torques
Peak torque capability
Electrical Drives
About 50% of electrical energy used for drives
Can be either used for fixed speed or variable speed
75% - constant speed, 25% variable speed (expanding)
Example on VSD application
motor pump
valve
Supply
Constant speed
Variable Speed Drives
Power
In
Power loss
Mainly in valve
Power out
motor pump
valve
Supply
motor
PEC pump
Supply
Constant speed
Power
In
Power loss
Power out
Power loss
Mainly in valve
Power out
Power
In
Power loss
Mainly in valve
Power out
motor pump
valve
Supply
motor
PEC pump
Supply
Constant speed
Power
In
Power loss
Power
In
Power out
Conventional electric drives (variable speed)
Bulky
Inefficient
inflexible
Modern electric drives (With power electronic converters)
Small
Efficient
Flexible
Modern electric drives
Inter-disciplinary
Several research area
Expanding
Machine design
Speed sensorless
Machine Theory
Non-linear control
Real-time control
DSP application
PFC
Speed sensorless
Power electronic converters
Utility interface
Renewable energy
20
Controllers
Controllers embody the control laws
governing the load and motor
characteristics and their interaction.

Controller
Torque/speed/
position commands
Torque/speed/
position feedback
Thermal and
other feedback
V
c
, f
c
, start,
shut-out,
signals, etc.
21
Components in electric drives
e.g. Single drive - sensorless vector control from Hitachi
e.g. Multidrives system from ABB
Motors
DC motors - permanent magnet wound field
AC motors induction, synchronous , brushless DC
Applications, cost, environment
Power sources
DC batteries, fuel cell, photovoltaic - unregulated
AC Single- three- phase utility, wind generator - unregulated
Power processor
To provide a regulated power supply
Combination of power electronic converters
More efficient
Flexible
Compact
AC-DC DC-DC DC-AC AC-AC
25
Control unit
Complexity depends on performance requirement
analog- noisy, inflexible, ideally has infinite bandwidth.
digital immune to noise, configurable, bandwidth is smaller than
the analog controllers
DSP/microprocessor flexible, lower bandwidth - DSPs perform
faster operation than microprocessors (multiplication in single
cycle), can perform complex estimations
26
DC Motors
Limitations:
Advantage: simple torque and speed control without
sophisticated electronics
Regular Maintenance Expensive motor
Heavy motor Sparking
27
DC DRIVES Vs AC DRIVES
DC drives:
Advantage in control unit
Disadvantage in motor

AC Drives:
Advantage in motor
Disadvantage in control unit

Load
The motor drives a load that has a characteristic
torque vs. speed requirement.

In general, load torque is a function of speed
and can be written as:
T
l
e
m
x

x=1 for frictional systems (e.g. feed drives)
x=2 for fans and pumps
29
General Torque Equation
Translational (linear) motion:
dt
d
J T
e
=
Rotational motion:
dt
dv
M F =
F : Force (Nm)
M : Mass (Kg )
v : velocity (m/s)
T : Torque (Nm)
J : Moment of Inertia (Kgm
2
)
e : angular velocity ( rad/s )
30
Torque Equation: Motor drives
dt
d
J T T or
dt
d
J T T
L e L e
e e
= + =
0 >
L e
T T
Acceleration
0 <
L e
T T
Deceleration
0 =
L e
T T
Constant speed
Te : motor torque (Nm) T
L
: Load torque (Nm)
31
continue
Drive accelerates or decelerates depending
on whether Te is greater or less than T
L
During acceleration, motor must supply not only
the load torque but also dynamic torque, ( Jde/dt ).
During deceleration, the dynamic torque, ( Jde/dt ), has
a negative sign. Therefore, it assists the motor
torque, Te.
Elementary principles of mechanics
M
v
F
m

F
f

( )
dt
Mv d
F F
f m
=
Newtons law
Linear motion, constant M
First order differential equation for speed
Second order differential equation for displacement
( )
Ma
dt
x d
M
dt
v d
M F F
2
2
f m
= = =
x
First order differential equation for angular frequency (or velocity)
Second order differential equation for angle (or position)
( )
2
2
m
l e
dt
d
J
dt
d
J T T
u
=
e
=
With constant J,
Rotational motion
- Normally is the case for electrical drives
( )
dt
J d
T T
m
l e
e
=
u
T
e
, e
m
T
l

J
dt
d
J T T
m
l e
e
+ =
For constant J,
( )
dt
d
J
m
e
Torque dynamic present during speed transient
( )
dt
d
m
e
Angular acceleration (speed)
The larger the net torque, the faster the acceleration is.
0.19 0.2 0.21 0.22 0.23 0.24 0.25
-200
-100
0
100
200
s
p
e
e
d

(
r
a
d
/
s
)
0.19 0.2 0.21 0.22 0.23 0.24 0.25
0
5
10
15
20
t
o
r
q
u
e

(
N
m
)
( )
dt
v d
M F F
l e
=
Combination of rotational and translational motions
r r
e
T
e,
e
T
l

F
l
F
e
v
M
T
e
= r(F
e
), T
l
= r(F
l
), v =re
dt
d
M r T T
2
l e
e
=
r
2
M - Equivalent moment inertia of the
linearly moving mass
Elementary principles of mechanics effect of gearing
Motors designed for high speed are smaller in size and volume
Low speed applications use gear to utilize high speed motors
Motor
T
e

Load 1,
T
l1

Load 2,
T
l2

J
1

J
2

e
m

e
m1

e
m2

n
1

n
2

Motor
T
e

Load 1,
T
l1

Load 2,
T
l2

J
1

J
2

e
m

e
m1

e
m2

n
1

n
2

Motor
T
e

J
equ

Equivalent
Load , T
lequ

e
m

2
2
2 1 equ
J a J J + =
T
lequ
= T
l1
+ a
2
T
l2

a
2
= n
1
/n
2

Elementary principles of mechanics effect of gearing
Motor steady state torque-speed characteristic
Synchronous mch
Induction mch
Separately / shunt DC mch
Series DC
SPEED
TORQUE
By using power electronic converters, the motor characteristic
can be change at will
Load steady state torque-speed characteristic
SPEED
TORQUE
Frictional torque (passive load)
Exist in all motor-load drive
system simultaneously

In most cases, only one or two
are dominating

Exists when there is motion
T~ C
Coulomb friction
T~ e
Viscous friction
T~ e
2

Friction due to turbulent flow
o
T
L

T
e

Vehicle drive
Constant torque, e.g. gravitational torque (active load)
SPEED
TORQUE
Gravitational torque
gM
F
L

T
L
= rF
L
= r g M sin o
Hoist drive
Speed
Torque
Gravitational torque
Load and motor steady state torque
At constant speed, T
e
= T
l

Steady state speed is at point of intersection between T
e
and T
l
of the
steady state torque characteristics

T
l
T
e

Steady state
speed
e
r

Torque
Speed
e
r2

e
r3

e
r1

43
Load Torque
Load torque, T
L
, is complex, depending on applications.
SPEED
TORQUE
T
L
= ke
2
T
L
= ke

T
L
= k

In general:
Thermal considerations
Unavoidable power losses causes temperature increase
Insulation used in the windings are classified based on the
temperature it can withstand.
Motors must be operated within the allowable maximum temperature
Sources of power losses (hence temperature increase):
- Conductor heat losses (i
2
R)
- Core losses hysteresis and eddy current
- Friction losses bearings, brush windage
45
Steady-state stability
46
1.5.1. Typical load torque / speed
curves

Typical load torque / speed curves are
shown on figure 1.7. They give a
strong indication of the variety of
torque / speed characteristics. Along
such curves the mechanical power
required from the motor varies with
speed.
Figure 1.7. Typical load speed /
torque, speed / power curves
47
1.7. LOAD DYNAMICS AND STABILITY
load friction e
r
t
T T T
dt
d
J =
O
(1.22)
W V C S friction
T T T T T + + + =
(1.23)
where T
S
is the static friction torque (at zero speed); T
C
is Coulomb friction
torque (constant with speed); T
V
is viscous friction torque (proportional to
speed) and T
W
is windage friction (including the ventilator braking torque,
proportional to speed squared):
r V
' B T O =
2
r W
C T O =
(1.24)
(1.25)
48
Figure 1.13. Mechanical characteristics:
a.) d.c. brush motor with separate excitation b.) induction motor
c.) synchronous motor
Figure 1.12. Components of friction torque, Tfriction
49
IV (Induction)
I (Synchronous)
II (dc Shunt/Separately excited)
III (dc series excited)
T
max
Torque
Speed
Various Motor Characteristics
Electrical machines can be overloaded as long their temperature
does not exceed the temperature limit
Accurate prediction of temperature distribution in machines is
complex hetrogeneous materials, complex geometrical shapes
Simplified assuming machine as homogeneous body
p
2

p
1

Thermal capacity, C (Ws/
o
C)
Surface A, (m
2
)
Surface temperature, T (
o
C)
Input heat power
(losses)
Emitted heat power
(convection)
Ambient temperature, T
o

Power balance:
2 1
p p
dt
dT
C =
Heat transfer by convection:
) T T ( A p
o 2
o =
C
p
T
C
A
dt
T d
1
= A
o
+
A
Which gives:
( )
t
o
= A
/ t h
e 1
A
p
T
A
C
o
= t , where
With AT(0) = 0 and p
1
= p
h
= constant ,
, where o is the coefficient of heat transfer
t
t
T A
t
t
t
A = A
/ t
e ) 0 ( T T
T A
( )
t
o
= A
/ t h
e 1
A
p
T
Heating transient
Cooling transient
A
p
h
o
) 0 ( T A
The duration of overloading depends on the modes of operation:
Continuous duty
Short time intermittent duty
Periodic intermittent duty
Continuous duty
Load torque is constant over extended period multiple
Steady state temperature reached
Nominal output power chosen equals or exceeds continuous load
T A
t
A
p
n 1
o
t
p
1n
Losses due to continuous load
Operation considerably less than time constant, t
Motor allowed to cool before next cycle
Motor can be overloaded until maximum temperature reached
t
1

t
A
p
s 1
o
max
T A
A
p
n 1
o
t
T A
p
1
p
1n
p
1s
t
1

t
t
T A
( )
t
o
= A
/ t s 1
e 1
A
p
T
max
T A
A
p
n 1
o
( )
t
o
=
o
/ t
s 1 n 1 1
e 1
A
p
A
p
( )
t
>
/ t
s 1 n 1
1
e 1 p p
1
/ t
n 1
s 1
t e 1
1
p
p
1
t
~
s
t
Load cycles are repeated periodically
Motors are not allowed to completely cooled
Fluctuations in temperature until steady state temperature is reached
p1
t
heating coolling
coolling
coolling
heating
heating
Example of a simple case p
1
rectangular periodic pattern
p
n
= 100kW, nominal power
M = 800kg
q= 0.92, nominal efficiency
AT
= 50
o
C, steady state temperature rise due to p
n
kW 9 1
1
p p
n 1
=
|
|
.
|
\
|

q
=
Also, C / W 180
50
9000
T
p
A
o
1
= =
A
= o
If we assume motor is solid iron of specific heat c

FE
=0.48 kWs/kg
o
C,
thermal capacity C is given by

C = c
FE
M = 0.48 (800) = 384 kWs/
o
C
Finally t, thermal time constant = 384000/180 = 35 minutes
Example of a simple case p
1
rectangular periodic pattern
For a duty cycle of 30% (period of 20 mins), heat losses of twice the nominal,

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
x 10
4
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Torque-speed quadrant of operation
e
T
1
2
3 4
T +ve
e +ve
P
m
+ve
T -ve
e +ve
P
m
-ve
T -ve
e -ve
P
m
+ve
T +ve
e -ve
P
m
-ve
4-quadrant operation
e
m
T
e
T
e
e
m
T
e
e
m
T
e
e
m
e

T

Direction of positive (forward)
speed is arbitrary chosen
Direction of positive torque will
produce positive (forward) speed
Quadrant 1
Forward motoring
Quadrant 2
Forward braking
Quadrant 3
Reverse motoring
Quadrant 4
Reverse braking
1.8. MULTIQUADRANT OPERATION
These possibilities are summarised in Table 1.1 and in figure 1.16.

Table 1.1.
Mode of
operation
Forward
motoring
Forward
regenerati
ve braking
Reverse
motoring
Reverse
regenerati
ve braking
Speed, e
r
+ + - -
Torque, T
e
+ - - +
Electric
power flow
+ - + -
4Q OPERATION
SPEED
TORQUE
I

III

II

IV

e Te e Te
e Te e Te
FM FB
RM
RB
F: FORWARD R: REVERSE M : MOTORING B: BRAKING
4Q OPERATION: LIFT SYSTEM
Counterweight Cage
Motor
Positive speed
Negative torque
Convention:
Upward motion of the cage: Positive speed
Weight of the empty cage < Counterweight
Weight of the full-loaded cage > Counterweight
Principle:
What causes the motion?
Motor : motoring P =Te = +ve
Load (counterweight) : braking P =Te = -ve
You are at 10
th
floor, calling
fully-loaded cage from gnd floor
You are at gnd floor, calling
empty cage from 10
th
floor
You are at 10
th
floor, calling
empty cage from gnd floor
You are at gnd floor, calling
Fully-loaded cage from 10
th
floor
Torque
Speed
FM FB
RM RB
DC MOTOR DRIVES
Principle of operation
Torque-speed characteristic
Methods of speed control
Armature voltage control
Variable voltage source
Phase-controlled Rectifier
Switch-mode converter (Chopper)
1Q-Converter
2Q-Converter
4Q-Converter
Figure 1.16. Electric drives with four quadrant operation

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Electric Drives

If we assume motor is solid iron of specific heat c

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