POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS

AND SIMULATION
150902
1
SYALLBUS OVER VIEW
SYALLBUS OVER VIEW
1. Current and Voltage Relations on a Transmission Line
2. System Modeling:
3. Symmetrical Three-Phase Faults:
4. Symmetrical Components:
5. Unsymmetrical Faults:
6. Corona:
7. Neutral Grounding:
8. Transients in Power Systems:
Book References
Elements of Power Systems Analysis : W. D. Stevenson Jr., 4th
Edition, McGraw Hill International.
Power system analysis and design by B R Gupta
Electrical Power systems: C. L . Wadhwa, 5th Edition, New Age
International Publishers
4
CURRENT AND VOLTAGE
RELATIONS ON ATRASMISSION LINE
Prepared by:
SUMIT K RATHORE
GCET
Website : www.sumitrathor.co.in
Email id : sumitrathor@gcet.ac.in
5
Transmission Line
LINES
Generators and loads are connected together through transmission
lines transporting electric power from one place to another.
Transmission line must, therefore, take power from generators,
transmit it to location where it will be used, and then distribute it to
individual consumers.

The power capability of a transmission line is proportional to the
square of the voltage on the line. Therefore, very high voltage levels
are used to transmit power over long distances. Once the power
reaches the area where it will be used, it is stepped down to a lower
voltages in distribution substations, and then delivered to customers
through distribution lines.
Preliminaries
Dual 345 kV transmission line
Distribution line with no ground wire.
Preliminaries
An overhead transmission line usually consists of three conductors
or bundles of conductors containing the three phases of the power
system. The conductors are usually aluminum cable steel reinforced
(ACSR), which are steel core (for strength) and aluminum wires
(having low resistance) wrapped around the core.
Preliminaries
In overhead transmission lines, the conductors are suspended from a pole
or a tower via insulators.
Preliminaries
In addition to phase conductors, a transmission line usually includes one or two
steel wires called ground (shield) wires. These wires are electrically connected
to the tower and to the ground, and, therefore, are at ground potential.
In large transmission lines,
these wires are located above
the phase conductors,
shielding them from lightning.
Preliminaries
There two types of transmission lines:
overhead lines and buried cables.
Preliminaries
Cable lines are designed to be placed underground or
under water. The conductors are insulated from one
another and surrounded by protective sheath. Cable
lines are usually more expensive and harder to
maintain. They also have capacitance problem not
suitable for long distance.
Preliminaries
Transmission lines are characterized by a resistance,
inductance, capacitance, and conductance per unit
length. These values determine the power-carrying
capacity of the transmission line and the voltage drop
across it at full load.
Resistance
The DC resistance of a conductor is given by
DC
l
R
A

=
Where l is the length of conductor; A cross-sectional area, is the resistivity of
the conductor. Therefore, the DC resistance per meter of the conductor is
(9.9.1
)
(9.9.1
)
DC
m
r
A
O

(
=
(

The resistivity of a conductor is a fundamental property of the material that the
conductor is made from. It varies with both type and temperature of the material.
At the same temperature, the resistivity of aluminum is higher than the resistivity
of copper.
Resistance
We notice that silver and copper would be among the best conductors. However,
aluminum, being much cheaper and lighter, is used to make most of the
transmission line conductors. Conductors made out of aluminum should have
bigger diameter than copper conductors to offset the higher resistivity of the
material and, therefore, support the necessary currents.
AC resistance of a conductor is always higher than its DC resistance due to the
skin effect forcing more current flow near the outer surface of the conductor. The
higher the frequency of current, the more noticeable skin effect would be.
At frequencies of our interest (50-60 Hz), however, skin effect is not very strong.

Wire manufacturers usually supply tables of resistance per unit length at common
frequencies (50 and 60 Hz). Therefore, the resistance can be determined from
such tables.
17
Inductance and inductive
reactance
The series inductance of a transmission line consists of two components: internal
and external inductances, which are due the magnetic flux inside and outside the
conductor respectively. The inductance of a transmission line is defined as the
number of flux linkages [Wb-turns] produced per ampere of current flowing
through the line:
L
I

=
Internal inductance:
Consider a conductor of radius r carrying a current I. At a
distance x from the center of this conductor, the magnetic
field intensity H
x
can be found from Amperes law:
x x
H dl I =
}
(9.12.2)
Inductance of a transmission line
A two-conductor
bundle
A four-conductor
bundle
Capacitance and capacitive
reactance
Since a voltage V is applied to a pair of conductors separated by a dielectric (air),
charges of equal magnitude but opposite sign will accumulate on the conductors:
q CV =
(9.23.1)
Where C is the capacitance between the pair of conductors.
In AC power systems, a transmission line carries a time-varying voltage different
in each phase. This time-varying voltage causes the changes in charges stored on
conductors. Changing charges produce a changing current, which will increase
the current through the transmission line and affect the power factor and voltage
drop of the line. This changing current will flow in a transmission line even if it is
open circuited.
Does open circuit current flow
possible??
Capacitance of a single phase
two-wire transmission line
ln
ab
c
D
r
tc
=
Thus:
(9.29.1)
Which is the capacitance per unit length of a single-phase two-wire transmission
line.

The potential difference between each conductor and the ground (or neutral) is
one half of the potential difference between the two conductors. Therefore, the
capacitance to ground of this single-phase transmission line will be
2
ln
n an bn
c c c
D
r
tc
= = =
(9.29.2)
Shunt capacitive admittance
The shunt capacitive admittance of a transmission line depends on both the
capacitance of the line and the frequency of the power system. Denoting the
capacitance per unit length as c, the shunt admittance per unit length will be
2
C
y j c j fc e t = =
The total shunt capacitive admittance therefore is
2
C C
Y y d j fcd t = =
where d is the length of the line. The corresponding capacitive reactance is the
reciprocal to the admittance:
1 1
2
C
C
Z j
Y fcd t
= =
(9.31.1)
(9.31.2)
(9.31.3)
Inductive reactance of a line
The series inductive reactance of a transmission line depends on both the
inductance of the line and the frequency of the power system. Denoting the
inductance per unit length as l, the inductive reactance per unit length will be
2
I
x j l j fl e t = =
where f is the power system frequency. Therefore, the total series inductive
reactance of a transmission line can be found as
I I
X x d =
(9.22.1)
(9.22.2)
where d is the length of the line.
2-port networks and ABCD
models
A transmission line can be represented by a 2-
port network a network that can be isolated
from the outside world by two connections
(ports) as shown.
If the network is linear, an elementary circuits theorem (analogous to Thevenins
theorem) establishes the relationship between the sending and receiving end
voltages and currents as
S R R
S R R
V AV BI
I CV DI
= +
= +
Here constants A and D are dimensionless, a constant B has units of O, and a
constant C is measured in siemens. These constants are sometimes referred to as
generalized circuit constants, or ABCD constants.
2-port networks and ABCD
models
The ABCD constants can be physically interpreted. Constant A represents the effect
of a change in the receiving end voltage on the sending end voltage; and constant D
models the effect of a change in the receiving end current on the sending end
current. Naturally, both constants A and D are dimensionless.

The constant B represents the effect of a change in the receiving end current on the
sending end voltage. The constant C denotes the effect of a change in the receiving
end voltage on the sending end current.

Transmission lines are 2-port linear networks, and they are often represented by
ABCD models. For the short transmission line model, I
S
= I
R
= I, and the ABCD
constants are
1
0
1
A
B Z
C
D
=
=
=
=
(9.51.1)
Transmission line models
Unlike the electric machines studied so far, transmission lines are
characterized by their distributed parameters: distributed resistance,
inductance, and capacitance.
The distributed series and shunt elements of the transmission line make it
harder to model. Such parameters may be approximated by many small
discrete resistors, capacitors, and inductors.
However, this approach is not very practical, since it would require to solve
for voltages and currents at all nodes along the line. We could also solve the
exact differential equations for a line but this is also not very practical for
large power systems with many lines.
CLASSIFICATION OF LINE
Based on distance of transmission of power lines are classified as

Short lines(80km or 50mile)
Medium line(80 to 240km (50 to 150mile))
Long lines( more than 240km or 150mile)
Representation of Transmission
line models
Fortunately, certain simplifications can be used

Overhead transmission lines shorter than 80 km (50 miles) can be modeled as a
series resistance and inductance, since the shunt capacitance can be neglected
over short distances.
The inductive reactance at 60 Hz for overhead
lines is typically much larger than the resistance
of the line.
For medium-length lines (80-240 km), shunt
capacitance should be taken into account.
However, it can be modeled by two capacitors of
a half of the line capacitance each.
Lines longer than 240 km (150 miles) are long transmission lines and are to be
discussed later.
Representation of Transmission
line models
General equation relating voltage and current on a transmission line recognize
the fact that all four of the parameters of transmission line discussed so far are
uniformly distributed along the line Lumped parameter gives good accuracy
for short lines and for lines of medium length.
If an overhead line is classified as short shunt capacitance is ignored with little
loss of accuracy and we need to consider only series resistance R and series
inductance L for the total length of line
A medium length line can be represented sufficiently well by R and L as
lumped parameter with half the capacitance to neutral of the line lumped at
each end of the equivalent circuit. Shunt conductance is usually neglected in
overhead power transmission lines when calculating voltage and current

Representation of Transmission
line models
Normally transmission lines are operated with balance three phase loads.
Although the lines are not spaced equilaterally and not transposed the resulting
dissymmetry is slight and the phases are considered to be balanced
In order the distinguish between total series impedance of line and the series
impedance per unit length of line the following nomenclature is adopted

z = series impedance per unit length per phase
y = series admittance per unit length per phase

l = length of transmission line

Z= zl total impedance per phase

Y= yl total admittance per phase

Transmission line models
The total series resistance, series reactance, and shunt admittance of
a transmission line can be calculated as
R rd
X xd
Y yd
=
=
=
(9.37.1)
(9.37.2)
(9.37.3)
where r, x, and y are resistance, reactance, and shunt admittance per
unit length and d is the length of the transmission line. The values of
r, x, and y can be computed from the line geometry or found in the
reference tables for the specific transmission line.
Short transmission line
The per-phase equivalent circuit of a short line
V
S
and V
R
are the sending and receiving end
voltages; I
S
and I
R
are the sending and receiving
end currents. Assumption of no line admittance
leads to
S R
I I =
We can relate voltages through the Kirchhoffs voltage law
S R R L
V V ZI V RI jX I = + = + +
R S L
V V RI jX I =
which is very similar to the equation derived for a synchronous generator.
(9.38.1)
(9.38.2)
(9.38.3)
+ +
Why conductance is neglected in
short lines?
Short Transmission line
The effect of load variation of the power factor of the load on
the voltage regulation of line is most easily understood for short
line.


Voltage regulation of line is rise in voltage at receiving end
expressed in percent of full load voltage when full load at a
specified power factor is removed while the sending end voltage
is held constant
Short transmission line: phasor
diagram
AC voltages are usually expressed as phasors.
Load with lagging power factor.
Load with unity power factor.
Load with leading power factor.
For a given source voltage V
S
and magnitude of the
line current, the received voltage is lower for lagging
loads and higher for leading loads.
Short Transmission line
At no load condition V
S
=V
RNL
In various load conditions with various pf receiving end voltage
varies as well sending end voltage requirement also required to
change.
Smaller sending end voltage is required to maintain the given
receiving end voltage when the receiving end current leads the
voltage
The voltage drop is same in series impedance of line in all cases
because because of different power factor the voltage drop is
added to the receiving end voltage at different angle in each
case
The regulation is greatest for lagging power factor and least or
even negative for leading power factors
Medium-length transmission line
Considering medium-length lines (50 to 150
mile-long), the shunt admittance must be
included in calculations. However, the total
admittance is usually modeled (t model) as
two capacitors of equal values (each
corresponding to a half of total admittance)
placed at the sending and receiving ends.
The current through the receiving end capacitor can be found as
2
2
C R
Y
I V =
And the current through the series impedance elements is
2
ser R R
Y
I V I = +
(9.52.1)
(9.52.2)
Medium-length transmission line
From the Kirchhoffs voltage law, the sending end voltage is
( )
2
1
2
S ser R C R R R R
YZ
V ZI V Z I I V V ZI
| |
= + = + + = + +
|
\ .
(9.53.1)
The source current will be
1 1 2
1 1
2 2 4 2
S C ser C C R S R R R R
Y Y ZY ZY
I I I I I I V V I Y V I
| | | |
= + = + + = + + = + + +
| |
\ . \ .
(9.53.2)
Therefore, the ABCD constants of a medium-length transmission line are
1
2
1
4
1
2
ZY
A
B Z
ZY
C Y
ZY
D
= +
=
| |
= +
|
\ .
= +
(9.53.3)
If the shunt capacitance of the line
is ignored, the ABCD constants
are the constants for a short
transmission line.
Medium Transmission line
ABCD constants are sometimes called the generalized constants of
the transmission line
In general they are complex numbers
A and D are dimensionless and equal each other if the line is same
when viewed from either end
The dimension of B and C are ohms and mhos
The constants apply to any linear, passive and bilateral four terminal
network having tow pairs of terminal
Such a network is called a two port network
By letting IR=0 A=V
s
/V
R
at no load
Similarly B is the ratio V
s
/I
R
when the receiving end is short circuited
Constant A is useful in computing regulation
If V
RFL
is receiving end voltage at full load for sending end voltage of
VS becomes
%regulation = V
s
/A-V
RFL
V
RFL
One-line (single-line) diagrams
Almost all modern power systems are three-phase systems with the phases of equal
amplitude and shifted by 120. Since phases are similar, it is customary to sketch
power systems in a simple form with a single line representing all three phases of
the real system.
Combined with a standard
set of symbols for electrical
components, such one-line
diagrams provide a compact
way to represent information.
40 @Sumit K Rathore
One-line (single-line) diagrams

If a power system containing two synchronous machines, two loads, two busses, two
transformers, and a transmission line to connect busses together.
All devices are protected by oil circuit breakers (OCBs). We notice that the diagram
indicates the type of connection for each machine and transformer, and also the
points in the system connected to the ground.
The ground connections are important since they affect the current flowing in
nonsymmetrical faults. These connection can be direct or through a resistor or
inductor (they help reducing the fault current that flows in unsymmetrical faults, while
having no impact on the steady-state operation of the system since the current
through them will be zero). Machine ratings, impedances, and/or consumed (or
supplied) powers are usually included in the diagrams. 41 @Sumit K Rathore
One line representation

42 @Sumit K Rathore
One line representation
43 @Sumit K Rathore
REACTIVE POWER COMPENSATION OF LINE
The performance of medium and long line can be improved by reactive
power compensation by shunt and series type
Series compensation consist of capacitor bank places in series with each
phase conductor of the line
Shunt compensation refers to the placement of inductor from each line to
neutral to reduce partially or completely the shunt susceptance of a high
voltage line which is which is particularly important at light loads when the
voltage at receiving end may otherwise become very high
Series compensation reduces the series impedance of line which is the
principal cause of voltage drop and the most important factor in determining
the maximum power which the line can transmit
In order to understand the effect of series impedance Z on maximum power
transmission out of ABCD constant B is useful for understanding power
transmission in short line B=Z
REACTIVE POWER COMPENSATION OF LINE
The desired reactance of the capacitor bank can be determined by
compensating for a specific amount of the total inductive reactance of the
line
This leads to the term compensation factor which is defined by Xc/XL
Physical location of capacitor bank is important for power system studies

This can be easily accomplished by determining ABCD constant of the
portions of line on each side of the capacitor bank and by representing the
capacitor bank by its ABCD constants
in long distance power transmission if generators are located far from loads
series compensation is required
Lower voltage drop in line with series compensation is an additional
advantage
Series capacitors are also useful in balancing the voltage drop of tow parallel
lines
Per-phase, per-unit equivalent circuits
As we have learned, the easiest way to analyze a balanced three-phase circuit is by a
per-phase equivalent circuit with all A connections converted in their equivalent Y
connections. The solution obtained can be extended to three phases knowing that
the voltages and currents in other two phases would be the same except for the 120
phase shift.
An advantage of per-unit representation is that circuits containing transformers can
be easily analyzed.
Real power systems are convenient to analyze using their per-phase (since the
system is three-phase) per-unit (since there are many transformers) equivalent
circuits. The per-phase base voltage, current, apparent power, and impedance are
1 ,
,
base
base
LN base
S
I
V
|
=
( )
2
,
,
1 ,
LN base
LN base
base
base base
V
V
Z
I S
|
= =
46 @Sumit K Rathore
Advantage of per unit system
Manufacturers usually specify the impedance of a piece of apparatus in percent
of per unit on the base of the nameplate rating
The per unit impedance of machine of the same type and widely different rating
usually lie within a narrow range although the ohmic values differ materially for
machines of different ratings. For this reason when the impedance is not known
definitely it is generally possible to select from the tabulated average values
which is reasonably correct
When impedance in ohms is specified in an equivalent circuit each impedance
must be referred to the same circuit by multiplying it by the square of the ratio of
the rated voltage of the two sides of transformer connecting the reference circuit
and the circuit containing the impedance. The per unit impedance once
expressed on the proper base it is same referred to either side of any transformer
The way in which transformer are connected in three phase circuits does not
affect the per unit impedance of the equivalent circuit although the transformer
connection does determine the relation between the voltage bases on the two
sides of the transformer.
47 @Sumit K Rathore
Per unit system
48 @Sumit K Rathore
Per unit system

49 @Sumit K Rathore
PER UNIT VALUE
For three phase to per phase per unit values

kVA
1
= kVA
3
/3

kV
1
= kV
3
/3

50 @Sumit K Rathore
Changing the base of per unit
quantities
Sometimes the base impedance of component of system is expressed on a base
other than selected one as base for the part of the system in which component is
located
Since all impedance in any one part of system must be expressed on same
impedance base when making computations so it is necessary to have means of
converting per unit impedance from one base to another.
51 @Sumit K Rathore
Changing the base of per unit
quantities


Which shows per unit impedance is directly
proportional base kVA and inversely proportional
to kV. So change from old impedance to new one
is given by
52 @Sumit K Rathore
Changing the base of per unit
quantities
For example you have generator whose base kV
and KVA or MVA changes to new one

E.g: the reactance of geneator designated X
given by 0.25pu based in generator name plate
of 18kV and 500MVA. The base for calculations is
20kV, 100MVA. Find X new base?
53 @Sumit K Rathore
Long transmission line
For long lines, it is not accurate enough to approximate the shunt admittance by
two constant capacitors at either end of the line. Instead, both the shunt capacitance
and the series impedance must be treated as distributed quantities; the voltages and
currents on the line should be found by solving differential equations of the line.
However, it is possible to model a long
transmission line as a t model with a
modified series impedance Z and a
modified shunt admittance Y and to
perform calculations on that model
using ABCD constants. The modified
values of series impedance and shunt
admittance are:
( )
sinh
'
tanh 2
'
2
d
Z Z
d
d
Y Y
d

=
=
(9.54.1)
(9.54.2)
Long transmission line
Here Z is the series impedance of the line; Y is the shunt admittance of the line; d is
the length of the line; is the propagation constant of the line:
yz =
(9.55.1)
where y is the shunt admittance per kilometer and z is the series impedance per km.
As d gets small, the ratios approach 1.0 and the model becomes a medium-length
line model. The ABCD constants for a long transmission line are
' '
1
2
'
' '
' 1
4
' '
1
2
Z Y
A
B Z
Z Y
C Y
Z Y
D
= +
=
| |
= +
|
\ .
= +
(9.55.2)
THE LONG TRANSMISSION LINE: SOLUTION OF THE
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
For line length of more than exact 50Hz and 240km or 150mi is considered to
be the long length line and the parameter of the line is distributed along the line.

Figure shows the line with one phase and neutral and the parameter is
distributed along the line

Lumped parameters are not shown because we are ready to consider the
solution of the line with the impedance and admittance uniformly distributed
THE LONG TRANSMISSI ON LINE:
INTERPRETATION OF THE EQUATIONS
Both y and Zc are complex quantities. The real part of the propagation constant y is
called the attenuation constant alpha and is measured in nepers per unit length . The
quadrature part of gama is called the phase constant beta and is measured in radians per
unit length . Thus,
THE LONG TRANSMISSION LINE:
HYPERBOLIC FORM OF THE EQUATIONS
z
THE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
OF A LONG LINE
z
Power circle diagram of transmission line
Performance of transmission line can be studied either by analytical
method or graphical method

Analytical method is cumbersome and laborious

Graphical method analyzing by means of circle diagram approve to be
convenient method

Receiving end circle diagram is drawn with receiving end real and
reactive power as horizontal and vertical coordinates respectively



Power circle diagram of transmission line
Receving end circle diagram is drawn from voltage phasor diagram.







Phasor drawn with Vr as reference and Ir lags behind Vr for lagging power load or for
inductive load.

Then phasors can be converted to power phasor by multiplying the entire voltage phasor
by current phasor = Vr/B

S R R
S R R
V AV BI
I CV DI
= +
= +
Power circle diagram of transmission line
Procedure
Take x axis as active power reference and Y- axis as reactive power reference.

This is receiving end power circle diagram and it is assumed that sending and receiving
end voltage remains constant.

So first draw a line with angle of in anticlock wise direction because of
minus sign. This line having constant magnitude and constant phase angle.


Reference line for
delta
MW
MVAr
Procedure
Because of sending and receiving end voltage is constant and with parameter A
and B, Cr will be centre of circle.

The radius of the receiving end circle is also remains constant but only

changes angle by with angle of in positive direction
Cr
O
MW
MVAr

Cr
O
Radius
MW
MVAr

Cr
Radius
r
P
MW
MVAr

Cr
Radius
r
P
MW
MVAr

Cr
O
Radius
r
Pr
Qr
P
MW
MVAr


Power circle diagram of line
The operating point P on circle is loacted by amount of real power delivered to
the load i.e Pr the corresponding value of Qr can be read from circle diagram.

The power angle is the angle between reference line shown and phasor CrP

Many other useful information e.g capacity of compensation equipment
maximum receiving end power etc can also be obtained from power circle
diagram
REACTIVE POWER COMPENSATION OF LINE
SHUNT COMPENSATION
SERIES COMPENSATION
Questions
Difference between nominal pi and nominal T circuits.
Difference between series and shunt compensation.
What is ferranti effect
What are ABCD parameters
What is lossless line
What is surge impedance
What is wavelength
Surge impedance loading
SLACK BUS?
INFINE BUS
PV BUS?
PQ BUS?

81
Book References
POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS BY JOHN J GRAINGER & WILLIAM D STEVENSONS JR.
POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS AND DESIGN BY B R GUPTA
82
Web References
Z
83
Thank You


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84