Cell division

Division fashion of eukaryotic cell:

无丝分裂 (amitosis)
有丝分裂 (mitosis)
减数分裂 (meiosis)
 amitosis

characters ：
1.Spindle and chromosome
are not formed.

2.Genetic material was separated to

two cells unevenly.
 What is (and is not) mitosis?
Mitosis is nuclear division plus cytokinesis, and produces two
identical daughter cells during prophase, prometaphase,
metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Interphase is often included
in discussions of mitosis, but interphase is technically not part of
mitosis, but rather encompasses stages G1, S, and G2 of the cell
cycle.
 有 丝 分 裂

由核分裂（ karyokinesis) 与
胞质分裂（ cytokinesis) 两个连续
的过程所组成。
在有丝分裂过程中出现了纺
锤丝、纺锤体，核仁、核膜、染
色质均发生相应改变，从而保证
将复制的染色体准确地分配到两
个子细胞中。
Both the alignment and separation processes are the consequence of the
chromosomes interacting with filamentous proteinaceous structures, known as
microtubules. The microtubules become organized into a biconical array known
as a spindle, which forms early in mitosis, and then disassembles as mitosis nears
completion. Mitotic spindles are visible in living cells with the polarizing light
microscope. Some of the spindle microtubules become attached to the
chromosomes at sites known as kinetochores. The kinetochores cannot be seen
with the light microscope, but they reside near the place on the chromosome
known as its centromere, which can be observed with the light microscope.
There are two kinetochores on each replicated chromosome (one on each
chromatid), and when the replicated chromosome splits apart at its centromere
at the onset of anaphase, each daughter chromosome possesses one centromere
and one kinetochore. The linkages between kinetochores and microtubules are
thought to be central in controlling both the positioning of the replicated
chromosome at the central portion of the spindle during the alignment phase,
and in moving the daughter chromosomes apart after they split at their
centromeres. The separation of daughter cells from each other is a process
known as cytokinesis, and is separate from mitosis. In cytokinesis, animal and
plant cells differ considerably from each other. These differences are the
consequence of having or not having a cell wall. Cytokinesis in fungi reveals
some similarities with plant cells, and exhibits other features unique to the
group.
一、 structure of mitosis
apparatus

纺锤体 （ spindle)
中心体 (central body)
中心粒 (centriole)
星体 (aster)
染色体 (chromosome)
 Basic structure of spindle

kinetochore fibers

continuous fibers

interzonal fibers

aster fibers
星体微管

中心粒
极微管
（连续 纺
锤
丝） 体
微 区间微
管
管
着丝点
染色体微管 染色体微管

中心体
Structure of spindle and aster
Structure of centrosome
Structure of centromere
 姐妹
纺锤体微管 着丝点
（动原
粒）
主要成分蛋白质

外层
主缢痕（初级缢痕）
着丝粒
含高度重复 DNA

中层

内层

着丝点 kinetochore （动原粒）：是两条染色

单体外表面在初缢痕处的特殊附加结构，为染色体
的运动中心，也是微管组织中心之一。
 Function of mitosis apparatus

Mitosis apparatus is a temporal apparatus which is

formed by centrosome. It ensures genetic material to
be separated to two daughter cells evenly when the
energy is provided by the ATP.
 Stage of mitosis

前期 （ prophase)
前中期
(prometaphase)
中期 (metaphase)
后期 (anaphase)
末期 (telophase)
胞质分裂 (cytokinisis)
Interphase & mitosis

Interphase

The cell is engaged in metabolic activity and performing

its prepare for mitosis (the next four
phases that lead up to and include nuclear
division). Chromosomes are not clearly
discerned in the nucleus, although a dark

spot called the nucleolus may be visible.

The cell may contain a pair of centrioles
(or microtubule organizing centers in
plants) both of which are organizational sites for
microtubules.
Prophase
During prophase, the replicated chromosomes undergo extensive condensation
(i.e., coiling). The chromosomes are greatly thickened and shortened but are still
contained within the nuclear envelope. Late in prophase, within about 6 min of
nuclear envelope breakdown, the mitotic spindle begins to grow, and two
triangular 'clear zones' become visible, with one on each side of the nucleus. In
three dimensions, the clear zones are actually conical and the nucleus is spherical.
With continued spindle expansion, the nucleus rapidly becomes compressed and
appears eliptical in the optical section provided by differential interference
contrast optics. Prophase ends with the sudden dispersion of the nuclear envelope
(nuclear envelope breakdown), and the chromosomal
mass is no longer occupying a discrete,
spherically-shaped zone in the cell. Prophase
in stamen hair cells can last for as long as several
hours. It can also be observed by downloading the
movie.
Prometaphase
Once the nuclear envelope has broken down, the spindle microtubules and
the chromosomes are no longer separated by a (double) membrane
boundary. The microtubules begin to interact with the chromosomes, and the
chromosomes undergo what is known as congressional movement, where
they ultimately end up with their centromeres all situated in middle of the
spindle, at a site known as the metaphase plate. Each kinetochore of the
replicated chromosome is pointed toward one side of the spindle; later, in
anaphase, each kinetochore moves to one of the two spindle pole regions as
the daughter chromosome. The congression
of chromosomes and the alignment of
centromeres on the metaphase plate represent
essential prerequisites for the orderly
separation of the replicated genome into two
equal parts. The mechanisms underlying
congression are under intense scrutiny.
 Metaphase
The replicated chromosomes converge toward the center of the spindle, and once
they get there, significant movements cease. On either side of each centromere
are sites for microtubule attachment to the chromosome; electron microscopists
called these plate-like structures kinetochores. The kinetochores are not visible
with the light microscope. At several points during metaphase, the chromatid
arms may unwind from each other. This unwinding is especially apparent late in
metaphase, just 1 or 2 minutes before the chromatids will split apart at their
centromeres, with each replicated chromosome giving rise to two
daughter chromosomes. The interval between
nuclear envelope breakdown and anaphase
onset includes prometaphaseand metaphase,
and requires approximately 33 minutes.
Anaphase
Anaphase commences with the initial splitting of sister chromatids at their
centromeres. These daughter chromosomes then begin to separate from each
other, each moving away from the metaphase plate and toward one of the two
spindle pole regions. The rate of chromosome separation in stamen hair cells
is approximately 1.4 micrometers/min. The mechanisms that control
chromosome separation clearly involve the interactions between
Microtubules andcomponents in or near the kinetochore. Anaphase
chromosomal movement is a topic of intense interest in the Cell Biology
research community.
Telophase

Chromatids arrive at opposite poles of cell, and new

membranes form around the daughter nuclei. The
chromosomes disperse and are no longer visible under the
light microscope. The spindle fibers disperse, and cytokinesis
or the partitioning of the cell may also begin during this stage.
 Cytokinesis

In animal cells, cytokinesis results when a fiber ring

composed of a protein called actin around the center of the
cell contracts pinching the cell into two daughter cells, each
with one nucleus. In plant cells, the rigid wall requires that a
cell plate be synthesized between the two daughter cells.
Cytokinesis

Character:

1.Sure the position of

fission

2. Fiber ring forming

3. Contract pinching

4.Cell membrane
fusing ， daughter cell
separate 。
有丝分裂过程

核
仁
中心粒
动
物 前 期 中 期
细
胞
的
有
丝 收缩环造成的分裂
分 沟
裂

后 期
染色体形态动画
 Meiosis
Meiosis is a special type of nuclear division which segregates one copy
of each homologous chromosome into each new "gamete". Mitosis
maintains the cell's original ploidy level (for example, one diploid 2n cell
producing two diploid 2n cells; one haploid n cell producing two haploid
n cells; etc.). Meiosis, on the other hand, reduces the number of sets of
chromosomes by half, so that when gametic recombination (fertilization)
occurs the ploidy of the parents will be reestablished.
Function of meiosis
Sexual reproduction occurs only in eukaryotes. During the
formation of gametes, the number of chromosomes is
reduced by half, and returned to the full amount when the
two gametes fuse during fertilization.
Process of meiosis
Two successive nuclear divisions occur, Meiosis I (Reduction)
and Meiosis II (Division). Meiosis produces 4 haploid cells.
Mitosis produces 2 diploid cells. The old name for meiosis was
reduction/ division. Meiosis I reduces the ploidy level from 2n
to n (reduction) while Meiosis II divides the remaining set of
chromosomes in a mitosis-like process (division). Most of the
differences between the processes occur during Meiosis I.
Prophase I
Prophase I has a unique event -- the pairing (by an as yet
undiscovered mechanism) of homologous chromosome.
Synapsis is the process of linking of the replicated
homologous chromosomes. The resulting chromosome is
termed a tetrad, being composed of two chromatids from each
chromosome, forming a thick (4-strand) structure. Crossing-
over may occur at this point. During crossing-over chromatids
break and may be reattached to a different homologous
chromosome.
Prophase I
Thus, instead of producing only two types of chromosome (all
capital or all lower case), four different chromosomes are
produced. This doubles the variability of gamete genotypes.
The occurrence of a crossing-over is indicated by a special
structure, a chiasma (plural chiasmata) since the recombined
inner alleles will align more with others of the same type (e.g. a
with a, B with B). Near the end of Prophase I, the homologous
chromosomes begin to separate slightly, although they remain
attached at chiasmata.
Crossing-over between
homologous
chromosomes produces
chromosomes with new
associations of genes and
alleles.
减数分裂过程 1. 同源染色体配对 1. 二价体四分体 1. 联会复合体消
——联会 失
2. 非姐妹染色 2. 同源染色体某
2. 二价体形成 单体之间出现 些部分分离
1 . 减数分裂 I 交叉。

前期 I( 细线 前期 I( 偶线 前期 I( 粗线 前期 I( 双线 前期 I( 终变期
期) 期) 期) 期)
同源染色体：大小形态相同、结构相似、一条来自父亲一条来自母亲，上面载有等位基
因的 一对染色体 ——同源染色体。 姐妹染色单体
姐妹染色单体 3 和 4 的染色
同源染色体 I 的 同源染色体 II 1 和 2 的染色 质
2 条姐妹染色单 的 2 条姐妹染色 质 中央组分
体 单体

同源染色
体 I 的着丝
点

侧生组分
同源染色
体 II 的着
四分体 丝点 联会复合体
Prophase I

Events of Prophase I (save for synapsis and crossing over) are

similar to those in Prophase of mitosis: chromatin condenses into
chromosomes, the nucleolus dissolves, nuclear membrane is
disassembled, and the spindle apparatus forms.
Metaphase I

Metaphase I is when tetrads line-up along the equator of

the spindle. Spindle fibers attach to the centromere region
of each homologous chromosome pair. Other metaphase
events as in mitosis.
 Anaphase I
Anaphase I is when the tetrads separate, and are drawn to opposite
poles by the spindle fibers. The centromeres in Anaphase I remain
intact.
Telophase I

Telophase I is similar to Telophase of mitosis, except that

only one set of (replicated) chromosomes is in each "cell".
Depending on species, new nuclear envelopes may or may
not form. Some animal cells may have division of the
centrioles during this phase.
Prophase II

During Prophase II, nuclear envelopes (if they formed

during Telophase I) dissolve, and spindle fibers reform. All
else is as in Prophase of mitosis. Indeed Meiosis II is very
similar to mitosis.
 Metaphase II
Metaphase II is similar to mitosis, with spindles moving
chromosomes into equatorial area and attaching to the
opposite sides of the centromeres in the kinetochore region.
Anaphase II
During Anaphase II, the centromeres split and the former
chromatids (now chromosomes) are segregated into opposite
sides of the cell.
Telophase II

Telophase II is identical to Telophase of mitosis.

Cytokinesis separates the cells.
 前期 I( 细线 前期 I( 偶线 前期 I( 粗线 前期 I( 双线 前期 I( 终变期 )
期) 期) 期) 期)

中期 I 后期 I 末期 I

前期 II 中期 II 后期 II 末期 II
Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis |
Mitosis maintains ploidy level, while meiosis reduces it.
Meiosis may be considered a reduction phase followed by a
slightly altered mitosis. Meiosis occurs in a relative few cells of
a multicellular organism, while mitosis is more common.
Meiosis
 Gametogenesis
Gametogenesis is the process of forming gametes (by definition
haploid, n) from diploid cells of the germ line. Spermatogenesis
is the process of forming sperm cells by meiosis (in animals, by
mitosis in plants) in specialized organs known as gonads (in
males these are termed testes). After division the cells undergo
differentiation to become sperm cells. Oogenesis is the process
of forming an ovum (egg) by meiosis (in animals, by mitosis in
the gametophyte in plants) in specialized gonads known as
ovaries. Whereas in spermatogenesis all 4 meiotic products
develop into gametes, oogenesis places most of the cytoplasm
into the large egg. The other cells, the polar bodies, do not
develop. This all the cytoplasm and organelles go into the egg.
Human males produce 200,000,000 sperm per day, while the
female produces one egg (usually) each menstrual cycle.
Spermatogenesis
Sperm production begins at puberty at continues throughout
life, with several hundred million sperm being produced each
day. Once sperm form they move into the epididymis, where
they mature and are stored.
 Oogenesis
The ovary contains many follicles composed of a developing egg
surrounded by an outer layer of follicle cells. Each egg begins
oogenesis as a primary oocyte. At birth each female carries a
lifetime supply of developing oocytes, each of which is in
Prophase I. A developing egg (secondary oocyte) is released each
month from puberty until menopause, a total of 400-500 eggs.