Os 1

Silberschatz and Galvin 1999
1.1 Operating System Concepts

Module 1: Introduction
What is an Operating System?
A program that acts as an intermediary between a user of a
computer and the computer hardware.
Operating system goals:
Execute user programs and make solving user problems
easier.
Make the computer system convenient to use.
Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner.
Computer System Components
1. Hardware provides basic computing resources (CPU,
memory, I/O devices).
2. Operating system controls and coordinates the use of the
hardware among the various application programs for the
various users.
3. Applications programs define the ways in which the system
resources are used to solve the computing problems of the
users (compilers, database systems, video games, business
programs).
4. Users (people, machines, other computers).
Abstract View of System Components
Operating System Definitions
Resource allocator manages and allocates resources.
Control program controls the execution of user programs and
operations of I/O devices .
Kernel the one program running at all times (all else being
application programs).
1.6
Batch Operating system
operating system which analyzes your i/p and groups them into
batches .
data in each batch is of similar characteristics.
And then it performs operation on each individual batch.
Reduce setup time by batching similar jobs
Automatic job sequencing automatically transfers control from
one job to another. First rudimentary operating system.
the CPU is idle (or nearly so) during these relatively slow
operations.
EXAMPLE OF BATCH OPERATING SYSTEM IS AS
FOLLOWS..

1) DOS (Disk operating system)
2) IBM OS/2
3) Windows 1,2,3 95, 98

Operating System Concepts
1.7
Batch system
Memory Layout for a Simple Batch System
1.9
vantages
of
Advantages
1.Batch processing takes much of the work of the operator to the
computer.
2. Increased performance as a new job get started as soon as the previous
job finished without any manual intervention.

Disadvantages
1.Difficult to debug program.
2.A job could enter an infinite loop.
3.Due to lack of protection scheme, one batch job can affect pending
jobs.
the operator to the computer.
Increased performance as a new job get
started as soon as the previous job finished
without any manual intervention.
Disadvantages
Difficult to debug program.

Multiprogrammed Batch Systems
Several jobs are kept in main memory at the same time, and the
CPU is multiplexed among them.
OS Features Needed for Multiprogramming
I/O routine supplied by the system.
Memory management the system must allocate the memory to
several jobs.
CPU scheduling the system must choose among several jobs
ready to run.
Allocation of devices.
1.12
Multitasking
1.13
Multitasking(Time-sharing systems)
Multitasking refers to term where multiple jobs are executed by the CPU
simultaneously by switching between them.
Switches occur so frequently that the users may interact with each program
while it is running.
Operating system does the following activities related to multitasking.
it The user gives instructions to the operating system or to a program directly,
and receives an immediate response.
OS can handle multiple operations / executes multiple programs at a time.
developed to provide interactive use of a computer system at a reasonable cost.
uses concept of CPU scheduling and multiprogramming to provide each user
with a small portion of a time-shared CPU.
Each user has at least one separate program in memory.

1.14
A program that is loaded into memory and is executing is
commonly referred to as a process.
When a process executes, it typically executes for only a very
short time before it either finishes or needs to perform I/O.
Real-Time Systems
Often used as a control device in a dedicated application such as
controlling scientific experiments, medical imaging systems,
industrial control systems, and some display systems.
Well-defined fixed-time constraints.
Hard real-time system.
These systems are implemented in hardware as well as software.
missing a deadline is a total system failure.
Example uses include triggering airbag deployment in automobile
crashes, and monitoring the heart rate of a patient during an operation.
Time constrain is important
Soft real-time system
Useful in applications (multimedia, virtual reality) requiring
advanced operating-system features.
the usefulness of a result degrades after its deadline, thereby
degrading the system's quality of service.

1.16
Distributed Systems
Distribute the computation among several physical processors.
Loosely coupled system each processor has its own local
memory; processors communicate with one another through
various communications lines, such as high-speed buses or
telephone lines.
Advantages of distributed systems.
Resources Sharing
Computation speed up load sharing
Reliability
Communications

1.17
Distributed Systems (Cont.)
Network Operating System
provides file sharing
provides communication scheme
Facility to provide proper authentication
Option for message routing
runs independently from other computers on the network
Distributed Operating System
Facility to communicate with remote machines
Provides Less autonomous environment
gives the impression there is a single operating system
controlling the network.
Provide mechanism for security and message routing

Operating-System Structures
System Components
Operating System Services
System Calls
System Programs
System Structure
Virtual Machines
System Design and Implementation
System Generation
1.19
OS structure
Important aspect of OS Multiprogramming
Increase CPU utilization
time sharing system-require interactive computer system
Response time should be short
Process-program loaded into the memory and id being executed
Job pool contain all processes residing on disk awaiting allocation of main
memory
If there is no enough space for them the system must choose among them, it is
done by Job scheduling
Several programs in memory at same time-memory management
If several jobs are ready to run at same time, system must choose among them-
CPU scheduling
Time sharing OS require swapping-processes are swapped in and out of main
memory to disk

Functions of OS
1. Process Management
2. Main Memory Management
3. Secondary-Storage Management
4. I/O System Management
5. File Management
6. Protection System
7. Networking
8. Command-Interpreter System
1.Process Management
A process is a program loaded into memory and is executing. A
process needs certain resources, including CPU time, memory,
files, and I/O devices, to accomplish its task.
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in
connection with process management.
Process creation and deletion.
process suspension and resumption.
Provision of mechanisms for:
process synchronization
process communication
2.Memory Management
1. Main-Memory Management-Memory is a large array of words or
bytes, each with its own address. It is a repository of quickly accessible
data shared by the CPU and I/O devices.
Main memory is a volatile storage device. It loses its contents in the
case of system failure.
connections with memory management:
Keep track of which parts of memory are currently being used and
by whom.
Decide which processes to load when memory space becomes
available.
Allocate and deallocate memory space as needed.
Memory Management(cont..)
2.Secondary-Storage Management-
Since main memory (primary storage) is volatile and too small to
accommodate all data and programs permanently, the computer system
must provide secondary storage to back up main memory.
Most modern computer systems use disks as the principle on-line
storage medium, for both programs and data.
connection with disk management:
Free space management
Storage allocation
Disk scheduling
3.I/O System Management
Access to different devices are permitted only through OS.
in UNIX systems ,Device specifications are hidden from OS itself,
and here the device are managed by I/O subsystem.
The I/O subsystem consists of:
Keep track of which device are allocated on which process
A general device-driver interface
Drivers for specific hardware devices

4.Storage management
1. File Management-A file is a collection of related information
defined by its creator. Commonly, files represent programs (both
source and object forms) and data.
connections with file management:
File creation and deletion.
Directory creation and deletion.
Support of primitives for manipulating files and directories.
Mapping files onto secondary storage.
File backup on stable (nonvolatile) storage media.
1.26
Storage management(cont..)
2.mass storage management- secondary storage to backup main memory
Compilers, assemblers, word processors, editors etc are stored on a
disk until loaded into memory and then use the disk as both source and
destination of their processing
Activities performed with disk management are as follows
1. Free-space management
2. Storage allocation
3. Disk scheduling

5. Protection System
Protection refers to a mechanism for controlling access by
programs, processes, or users to both system and user
resources.
The protection mechanism must:
distinguish between authorized and unauthorized usage.
specify the controls to be imposed.
provide a means of enforcement.
6.Networking (Distributed Systems)
A distributed system is a collection processors that do not share
memory or a clock. Each processor has its own local memory.
The processors in the system are connected through a
communication network.
A distributed system provides user access to various system
resources.
Provide facility for communicating with system
Message forwarding
Access to a shared resource allows:
Computation speed-up
Increased data availability
Enhanced reliability
7.Command-Interpreter System
Many commands are given to the operating system by control
statements which deal with:
process creation and management
I/O handling
secondary-storage management
main-memory management
file-system access
protection
networking
Command-Interpreter System (Cont.)
The program that reads and interprets control statements is
called variously:
command-line interpreter
shell (in UNIX)
Its function is to get and execute the next command statement.

Operating System Services
OS provides some services that are helpful for the users
1. User Interface-such as Dtrace command line(text
commands),batch interface(commands and directives to control
those commands are into files),graphical user interfaces(GUI)
2. Program execution system capability to load a program into
memory and to run it.
3. I/O operations since user programs cannot execute I/O
operations directly, the operating system must provide some
means to perform I/O.
4. File-system manipulation program capability to read, write,
create, and delete files.
1.32
OS services(conti..)
5. Communications exchange of information between processes
executing either on the same computer or on different systems tied
together by a network. Implemented via shared memory or message
passing.
6. Error detection ensure correct computing by detecting errors in the
CPU and memory hardware, in I/O devices, or in user programs.
1.33
A view of operating system services
Additional Operating System Functions
Additional functions exist not for helping the user, but rather for
ensuring efficient system operations.
1. Resource allocation allocating resources to multiple
users or multiple jobs running at the same time.
2. Accounting keep track of and record which users use
how much and what kinds of computer resources for
account billing or for accumulating usage statistics.
3. Protection ensuring that all access to system resources
is controlled.

System Calls
System calls provide the interface between a running program
and the operating system.
Generally available as C,C++, assembly-language
instructions.
1.36
sequence of system calls required to copy a
file:
1.37
The handling of a user application invoking the open( )
system call
1.38
Three general methods are used to pass parameters between a
running program and the operating system.
Pass parameters in registers.
Store the parameters in a table in memory, and the table
address is passed as a parameter in a register.
Push (store) the parameters onto the stack by the program,
and pop off the stack by operating system.

1.39
Passing of parameters as a table
1.43
``
1.44
System Programs

Provides environment for program development and
execution
provide OS functionality through separate applications,
which are not part of the kernel or command interpreters.
They are also known as system utilities or system
applications.
Most systems also ship with useful applications such as
calculators and simple editors, ( e.g. Notepad ). Some
debate arises as to the border between system and non-
system applications.

1.45
System programs may be divided into 7 categories:

1. File management - programs to create, delete, copy, rename, print, list,
and generally manipulate files and directories.
2. Status information - Utilities to check on the date, time, number of
users, processes running, data logging, etc. System registries are used
to store and recall configuration information for particular applications.
3. File modification - e.g. text editors and other tools which can change file
contents.
4. Programming-language support - E.g. Compilers, linkers, debuggers,
profilers, assemblers, library archive management, interpreters for
common languages, and support for make.
5. Program loading and execution - loaders, dynamic loaders, overlay
loaders, etc., as well as interactive debuggers.
6. Communications - Programs for providing connectivity between
processes and users, including mail, web browsers, remote logins, file
transfers, and remote command execution.
7. Background services - System daemons are commonly started when
the system is booted, and run for as long as the system is running,
handling necessary services. Examples include network daemons, print
servers, process schedulers, and system error monitoring services.

1.46
Most operating systems today also come complete with a
set of application programs to provide additional
services, such as web browsers, word processor,
compiler, spreadsheets, games.
views of the OS seen by most users is defined by the
application programs and system programs, rather than
by system calls.

1.47
Operating-System Structure

1.Simple Structure
E.g.:- MS-DOS
It was written by a few programmers in a relatively short amount of
time, without the benefit of modern software engineering techniques,
and then gradually grew over time to exceed its original expectations.
It does not break the system into subsystems
has no distinction between user and kernel modes,
allowing all programs direct access to the underlying hardware
MS-DOS Layer Structure
1.49
The original UNIX OS used a simple layered approach,
but almost all the OS was in one big layer, not really
breaking the OS down into layered subsystems:

1.51
2.Layered Approach
1.52
Layered Approach
Another approach is to break the OS into a number of smaller layers, each of
which rests on the layer below it, and relies solely on the services provided by the
next lower layer.
This approach allows each layer to be developed and debugged independently,
with the assumption that all lower layers have already been debugged and are
trusted to deliver proper services.
The problem is deciding what order in which to place the layers, as no layer can
call upon the services of any higher layer
Layered approaches can also be less efficient, as a request for service from a
higher layer has to filter through all lower layers before it reaches the HW, possibly
with significant processing at each step.

1.53
3.Micro kernels

The basic idea behind micro kernels is to remove all non-essential services
from the kernel, and implement them as system applications instead, thereby
making the kernel as small and efficient as possible.
Most micro kernels provide basic process and memory management, and
message passing between other services, and not much more.
Security and protection can be enhanced, as most services are performed in
user mode, not kernel mode.
System expansion can also be easier, because it only involves adding more
system applications, not rebuilding a new kernel.
Mach was the first and most widely known microkernel, and now forms a
major component of Mac OSX.
Windows NT was originally microkernel, but suffered from performance
problems relative to Windows 95. NT 4.0 improved performance by moving
more services into the kernel, and now XP is back to being more monolithic.
Another microkernel example is QNX, a real-time OS for embedded systems.


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1.1 Operating System Concepts

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