1

MEEG 5113
MEEG 5113
Set 2
2
3
4
5
Vibration Analysis
All real engineering structures exhibit some amount of energy
dissipation. A helical spring in the suspension system of an
automobile will dissipate some energy due to the internal interaction
of grains of steel within the spring. A leaf spring adds friction
between the leaf elements to the internal energy dissipation. hile
both of these do aid the damping effect in a suspension system! they
are not significant because of the presence of the shoc" absorber.
At other times these internal effects are the only energy dissipating
means a#ailable. $ne example of this situation is the cable used in the
tether satellite experiments conducted %ointly by the &nited States and
'taly in the late 1(()*s. +hese experiments in#estigated the possibility
of using a single cable attached to a controlled mass as an alternati#e
to solar cells for generating electricity on future space flights.
,y dragging a conductor through the magnetic field of the earth! it is
possible to create an electric current which will pro#ide power to the
-
Vibration Analysis
spacecraft. $ne ma%or point of concern related to the potential problem
that drag on the approximately sixty miles of cable might create a s"ip
rope effect that would lead to instability and.or brea"ing of the ).5 mm
diameter cable.
+his situation was compounded by the fact that the only a#ailable
energy dissipation was the mo#ement between the wire and the
insulation. /ortunately! this small amount of damping pro#ed to be
sufficient enough to pre#ent any problems.
As will be seen as the e0uations are de#eloped! most engineering
systems exhibit only a small amount of damping e#en thought they
may be extremely large and complex. $nce again! this amount of
damping is a built1in characteristic that comes about from the materials
and construction methods employed. 't is the result of effects such as
friction between connected elements! internal friction that occurs
during deformation! and windage.
2
Vibration Analysis
,ecause the amount of damping is generally small! it is acceptable to
ignore its presence when determining the #ibrational characteristics of
the system. 3owe#er! the need to "now the amplitude of #ibration
re0uires that the damping be included. +his is especially true when the
damping effect is large.
4ue the complex nature of most engineering systems! it is generally
difficult to determine or estimate damping exactly especially due to the
interaction of these damping effects. +his situation can be dealt with by
studying each type damping indi#idually and then determining which
type of damping dominates in the system of interest. +his procedure
generally results in the ability to do an ade0uate analysis.
+he most common types of damping are #iscous! dry friction! and
hysteretic. 3ysteretic 5or structural6 damping arises in structural
elements due to hysteresis losses in the material. +he type and amount
of damping has a large effect on the dynamic response le#el.
7
(
Vibration Analysis
Viscous damping is a #ery common form of damping which is found in
many engineering systems such as instruments and automobiles. +he
#iscous damping force is proportional to the difference in the #elocity
of the ends of the damping element and opposes the motion. +his
ma"es the #iscous damping force a linear continuous function of the
#elocity.
As the e0uations that result from analysis of #iscous damping are the
simplest mathematical treatment! other
forms of damping are expressed in the
form of an e0ui#alent #iscous damper.
/or the damped S4$/ system shown
to the right! the damping force is e0ual
to the damping coefficient times the
#elocity as shown in the free body
diagram.
1)
Vibration Analysis
+he e0uation of motion is
4ifferentiating twice and substituting
the results into the e0uation of motion
yields
) mx cx kx + + && &
/or the damped #ibration case! the solution still has the form which
repeats itself e#ery second deri#ati#e with a negati#e coefficient.
3owe#er! the complex exponential form is the easiest to wor" with
and will be used here. +his means the e0uation for the displacement!
x5t6 will ha#e the form
5 6
st
x t Xe
2
5 6 )
st
ms cs k Xe + +
As X 8 ) is a tri#ial solution and e
st
)
for all time! the 0uadratic in s is sol#ed
for the roots.
11
Vibration Analysis
+he roots are
( )
2
1!2
4
2 2
c km
c
s
m m

t
3ence
1 2
1 2
5 6
s t s t
x t X e X e +
where X
1
and X
2
are arbitrary constants which are found by using the
initial conditions. +he system response depends on both the algebraic
sign of c and whether c
2
is greater than!
less than! or e0ual to 4km.
'f c is positi#e! x5t6 will decrease in
amplitude o#er time. 'f c is negati#e!
x5t6 will increase in amplitude o#er
time meaning the system is unstable. 'f
c
2
is less than 4km! x5t6 will oscillate.
'f c
2
is e0ual to or greater than 4km!
x5t6 will not oscillate.
12
Vibration Analysis
+o establish that these effects do occur! substitute the #alues for s
1
and
s
2
into x5t6 and manipulate the resulting expression as follows9
( ) ( )
2 2
1 2
4 4
2 2 2 2
1 2 1 2
5 6
c km c km
c c
t t
m m m m
s t s t
x t X e X e X e X e
_ _


+


, ,
+ +
+his e0uation must be e#aluated for each of the three possibilities. +o
accomplish this! the transitional #alue of c
2
8 4km is used to define the
critical damping coefficient! c
c
! which represents the #alue of damping
where oscillation ceases. +his yields
2
2 2 2
c
km
c km m
m

+o eliminate the need to ha#e a different e0uation for e#ery possible
combination of m! c! and k! the damping ratio! ! is defined as
2
2 2
c
c c c
c m
c m m

13
Vibration Analysis
( ) ( )
2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 2
1 1
1 2
5 6
5 6 : ;
t t
t t t
OR
x t X e X e
x t e X e X e


_ _
+

, ,
+

+
+
+his allows the expression for x5t6 to be rewritten as follows9
<ase 19 Underdamped 5) = 16
/or this case! the exponents in#ol#ing
2
> 1 are complex and x5t6 will
oscillate for at least a short time! depending on the #alue of . ?uler*s
identity allows the complex exponential terms to be rewritten in the
following manner9
cos sin
i
e i

t
t
Substitution of this e0ui#alence into the e0uation for x5t6 yields
14
Vibration Analysis
2 2
1 1
1 2
2 2
1
2 2
2
2 2
1 2 1 2
6
5 6 : ;
5 6 : cos5 1 6 sin5 1 6
cos5 1 6 sin5 1 6 ;
5 6 5 cos5 1 6 5 6sin5 1 6
t i t i t
t
t
OR
OR
x t e X e X e
x t e X t i t
X t i t
x t e X X t i X X t

+
_

,
_


,

1
1
]
+
+
+
+ +
Since x5t6 is a real 0uantity 5i.e. it can be felt and obser#ed6! the #alues
for X
1
and X
2
must be defined in such a way as to produce a real #alue
for x5t6. +his means that X
1
and X
2
must be complex con%ugates or
X
1
8 a 1 ib X
2
8 a @ ib
Substituting this result into the e0uation for x5t6 gi#es
15
Vibration Analysis
2 2
5 6 2 cos5 1 6 2 sin5 1 6
t
x t e a t b t

1
1
]
+
't is also con#enient to define the damped natural fre0uency as
2
1
d

5 6 cos sin
t
d d
x t e A t B t

1
]
+
Substituting this definition into the e0uation for x5t6 yields
x5t6 is a harmonic
function that decays
exponentially with time
as shown in the figure
to the right. +he #alues
for A and , depend on
the initial conditions
and the decay rate on .
1-
Vibration Analysis
1
2 2
where and tan
5 6 sin5 6
5 6 cos5 5 66 cos5 6
2

t
d
t t
d d
OR
B
X A B
A
x t e X t
x t e X t e X t

1
]

1
1
1
]
]
_
+

,
+

A more compact form for x5t6 can be had by including a phase angle
as shown below
/rom the system
response shown! it is
easily seen that both
the initial displacement
and #elocity were
positi#e and that was
small enough to allow
complete oscillations
12
Vibration Analysis
to occur before reaching a le#el that can be considered effecti#ely
Aero.
+here are three things about any transient response that are important.
+hese are 16 rise time which indicates how 0uic"ly the system
response reaches a specified percentage of its maximum #alue! 26
maximum #alue! 36 settling time which indicates how 0uic"ly the
system response decays to within a specified percentage abo#e the
e0uilibrium or steady1state
#alue. +hese #alues ha#e
an impact on one another
and it is important to "now
what range is acceptable
for each when designing a
system.
17
Vibration Analysis
Vibrational Motion
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
0
0. 01
0. 05
0. 1
0. 5
0. 71
Shown below are plots of the damped transient response of the same
system with increasingly amounts of damping. Botice how the
maximum #alue and settling time both decrease as increases. ,ut the
amount of energy needed to begin mo#ing the system also increases
with damping.
1(
2)
Vibration Analysis
<ase 29 Critically damped 5 8 16
/or this case! the roots are real and e0ual which means the exponents
in#ol#ing
2
> 1 are Aero and x5t6 will simply decay exponentially
bac" to the e0uilibrium or steady1state #alue.
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2 2
1 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
4 4
2 2 2 2
1 2 1 2
1 2
1 2
5 6
5 6
5 6 : ;
c km c km
c c
t t
m m m m
s t s t
t t
t
OR
OR
x t X e X e X e X e
x t X e X e
x t e X X t

_ _


+


, ,
_ _
+

, ,

+ +
+
+
21
Vibration Analysis
Vibrational Motion
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0 1 2 3 4
Time
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
1
22
Vibration Analysis
<ase 39 Overdamped 5 C 16
/or this case! the roots are real and distinct which means the
exponents in#ol#ing
2
> 1 are positi#e! real numbers and x5t6 will
simply decay exponentially bac" to the e0uilibrium or steady1state
#alue but at a rate that is slower than the critical damping case.
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2 2
1 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2
4 4
2 2 2 2
1 2 1 2
1 2
1 1
1 2
5 6
5 6
5 6 : ;
c km c km
c c
t t
m m m m
s t s t
t t
t t
t
OR
OR
x t X e X e X e X e
x t X e X e
x t e X e X e

_ _


+


, ,
_ _
+

, ,
_ _
+

, ,


+ +
+
+
23
Vibration Analysis
+o understand what happens to x5t6 as increases! each exponent
needs to be examined.
2
2
1
2
1
2
lim 1 1
lim 1 )
t
t
e
e

_
+

,
_


,

+ +

24
Vibration Analysis
Vibrational Motion
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Time
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
2
5
20
50
100
1000
25
2-
Vibration Analysis
+he transient response can be used to determine the amount of
damping present in a single degree1of1freedom model of a system by
imparting an initial displacement and.or #elocity to the system and
monitoring the amplitude of the response.
As shown below! a single degree1of1freedom was disturbed from
e0uilibrium and the amplitude of the motion plotted #ersus time. +he
motion is gi#en by
5 6 sin5 6
t
d
x t e X t

1
]
+
+he maximum #alue
will occur when
sin5 6 1
d
t +
2
1 2 2
1
d
d d
f

And the period!

d
! is
22
Vibration Analysis
+herefore!
1 '
'
' '
'' ''
''
'' ''
5 6 sin5 6
5 6 sin5 6
t t
d
t t
d
A!
x t e X t X e X
x t e X t X e X






1
]

1
]
+
+
,ut!
'' ' '
2
2
1
d
t t t

+ +

Substituting yields!
2
'
'
2
5 6
'
1
''
t
t
A!
X X e
X X e

4i#iding X
'
by X
''
yields
2
2
1
'
''
5 6
X
e
X

27
Vibration Analysis
+a"ing the natural logarithm of each side gi#es the logarithmic
decrement! ! as
Sol#ing for yields!
'f is small! it is possible
to use
'
''
2
ln
2
1
X
X

_

,

2
2 2 2
2 2 2 2
2
2
2
1 4
54 6
54 6
OR
OR

_

,



+

+
2

2(
Vibration Analysis
3owe#er! if is small enough that 1 >
2
is approximately 1! the
difference between X
'
and X
''
is li"ely to be small enough that it
cannot be measured accurately. 'n this case instead of using two
successi#e pea"s! use two pea"s that are p cycles apart. +his changes
the definition for t
''
to
And the e0uation for
becomes
2 p

'' ' '

2
2
1
d
p
t t p t

+ +

2
2
2 2
54 6 p

+
hich for small can be
written as
3)
Vibration Analysis
?#en if is large enough that 1 >
2
cannot be set e0ual to 1! good
accuracy for the estimate of can be obtained using the approximate
e0uation as shown below.
As seen in the figure! the error in the estimate of is small up to a
#alue of of about ).45 or ).5.
Damping Ratio vs. Logarithmic Decrement
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0 4 8 12 16 20
Logarithmic Decrement
D
a
m
p
i
n
g

R
a
t
i
o
Exact
Approx.
31
32
Vibration Analysis
Given - +he machine shown below weighs 3-)) lb and rests on a set
of #ibration isolators. As the machine is lowered onto the #ibration
isolators! the four springs 5one on each corner6 each deflect 3 inches.
4etermine the undamped natural fre0uency of #ibration! ! and the
stiffness of each spring. hat should the damping coefficient for this
set of isolators be if a damper is located with each spring and the
damped natural fre0uency of #ibration!
d
! is to be 1)D less than E
Solution Since all four springs deflect the same amount! the springs
are in parallel and k in the figure
represents the sum of the indi#idual
stiffnesses. +herefore! the #alue of k
can be found using
3-))
12)) . .
3 .
" lb
k lb in
x in

33
Vibration Analysis
?ach spring has a stiffness of
and the undamped natural fre0uency is
12)) . .
3)) . .
4
lb in
k lb in
( )
( )
2
2
1
532.124 126 ..
127.-(- 11.34
3 .
"
x
"
g
OR
g k
m x
in s
s s
in

+he damped natural fre0uency!
d
! is to be
()D of so it has a #alue of 1).21 s
11
.
+he damping coefficient for the set must
be found using the definitions for the
critical damping coefficient and
d
.
34
Vibration Analysis
2
2
2 2
2 2
512)) . .653-)) 6
2
532.124 12 .. 6
1117(.1- . . 1)5.27 . .
c
c
c
OR
OR
k"
c km
g
lb in lb
c
in s
c lb s in lb s in

+he critical damping coefficient for the set is found using
+he damping ratio for the set is found using
2
2
2 2
1
1 1 ).( ).1(
).43-
d
d
OR
OR

_

,

35
Vibration Analysis
+he damping coefficient for the set is found using
?ach damper needs a damping coefficient of 11.53 lb1s.in.
).43- 1)5.27 . .
4-.11 . .
c
c
OR
OR
c
c c
c
c lb s in
c lb s in






3-
32
Vibration Analysis
Given A light rigid rod of length # is pinned at O and has a body of
mass m attached at the other end as shown. A spring and #iscous
damper are connected in parallel and attached to the rod at a distance
a from the pi#ot. +he system is set up in a horiAontal plane.
Assuming that the damper is ad%usted to pro#ide critical damping!
obtain the motion of the rod as a function of time if it is rotated
through a small angle
)
and then released. Fi#en that
)
8 2
o
and
that the undamped natural fre0uency of the system is 3 rad.s!
calculate the displacement 1 s after release.
'f the damping is reduced to 7)D
of its critical #alue! calculate the
logarithmic decrement for the
system.
37
Vibration Analysis
Solution 'f the rod is rotated slightly in cloc"wise direction! the
spring and damper will exert a restoring force which is #ertically
upward and they will create a counter cloc"wise moment about O
e0ual to
2 2 2
2 2 2
)
O
OR
ka ca $ m#
m# ca ka




+ +
& && &&
&& &
/or the critical damping case! the solution has the form of
5)6
)
5)6 5)6
5)6 5 5)66
5)6 ) 5 5)66
O
A!
OR
A B e A
A B e Be
B

+
+ +

&
+o determine A and B we need
5 6 5 6
t
t A Bt e

+
3(
Vibration Analysis
+herefore!
)
5 6 51 6
t
t t e



+
/or
)
8 2
o
! 8 3 rad.s! and t 8 1 s!
+he logarithmic decrement is gi#en by
'
2
''
2
ln
1
X
X

_

,

o 3 o
516 2 51 36 ).4 e

+
So if is ).7! is
2 2
2 2 5).76
1 1 5).76
5.)22
7.37
).-
OR

4)
41
Vibration Analysis
Given Shown below is the schematic representation of a drop
hammer forge. +his system is composed of an an#il 5which weighs
5!))) B and is mounted on a foundation that has a stiffness of 5 x 1)
-

B.m and a #iscous damping coefficient of 1)
4
B1s.m6 and a drop
hammer called the tub which weighs 1)
3
B. 4uring a particular
operation the tub falls 2 m before stri"ing the an#il. 'f the an#il is at
rest prior to impact by the tub! determine the response of the an#il after
impact. Assume the coefficient of
restitution between the an#il and
the tub is ).4.
Solution +he first tas" is to
determine the #elocity of the tub
%ust prior to impact and the
#elocities of both the tub and an#il
%ust after impact.
42
Vibration Analysis
+o determine these #elocities! we use the principle of conser#ation of
momentum with the tub #elocity before and after impact represented
by v
t1
and v
t2
! respecti#ely. +he #elocity of the an#il before and after
impact are gi#en by v
a1
and v
a2
! respecti#ely. +he principle of
conser#ation of momentum states
%5v
a2
1 v
a1
6 8 m5v
t2
> v
t1
6
,oth v
a1
and v
t1
ha#e #alues which
are either "nown or can be easily
found. As the an#il is initially at
rest! v
a1
is Aero. +he #elocity of the
tub %ust prior to impact is found
using
G mv
2
t1
8 mg&
43
Vibration Analysis
Substituting these #alues for v
t1
and v
a1
into the momentum e0uation
yields
1
. 2 2 (.7)--5 2 -.2-1
t
m s v g&
$r the #alue for v
t1
is
( ) ( ) 2 2
5))) 1)))
) -.2-1
(.7)--5 (.7)--5
a t
v v
2 2
51).2)41 -37.722 1)2.)41
a t
v v
1 $H 1
+he definition of the coefficient of
restitution is
2 2 2 2
1 1
).4
) -.2-1
a t a t
a t
v v v v
r
v v
_ _

, ,



44
Vibration Analysis
Sol#ing these two e0uations simultaneously yields
2 2
2.5)4
a t
v v +
1 $H 1
2 2
. . 1.4-1 1.)435
a t
m s m s v A! v
+hus the initial conditions for the an#il are
+he damping coefficient is e0ual to
. 5)6 ) 5)6 1.4-1m s x A! x &
-
1)))
2 5)))
2 5 1)
(.7)--5
).)(7((5
c
k %

_

,

45
Vibration Analysis
-
2
.
.
5 1)
(7.((5
5)))
(.7)--5
1 (7.)25
n
d n
rad s
A!
rad s
k
%

_

,

+he undamped and damped natural fre0uencies are found using
+he displacement of the an#il is gi#en
by
) )
)
)
5 6 cos sin
5 6 sin
t
n
n
d d
d
t
n
d
d
OR
x x
x t e x t t
x
x t e t

' )



' )

+
+

&
&
4-