Dr. C.

Eswaraiah
Scientist
Mineral Processing Department
Institute of Minerals & Materials Technology, Bhubaneswar
COMMINUTION (Crushing and Grinding)

1. Introduction to Mechanical Operations

2. Introduction to Comminution

3. Particle characteristics

4. Different Mechanisms of Size Reduction

5. Comminution-Governing Laws

6. Crushers Introduction


LECTURE-1

Mixing Filtration
Settling
and
Sedimentation
Size
Reduction
MECHANICAL
OPERATIONS
COMMINUTION
Comminution is derived from the Latin comminuere = to make
small.

One of the oldest technologiest used in human history.

The Size reduction is applied to all the ways in which solids are cut
or broken into smaller pieces.
Modern industrial civilisation cannot exist without exploiting wide
range of comminution technologies

Core processing phase in mining and mineral production.
Why comminution is an interesting research area to apply
optimization and simulation?
INTRODUCTION

Particle breakage is an essential component of mineral
processing and is important in other industry sectors.

The aim is to efficiently reduce the particle size with maximum
throughput at minimum operating cost.

Example: Tumbling mills that are used in most of the
comminution operations are very inefficient as much of the
energy is wasted in impacts which do not break particles, or
simply consumed in the generation of unwanted product sizes.
INTRODUCTION

The difficulty is mainly associated with the complex physical
phenomenon involved in the process characterized by highly dynamic
and non-linear behavior.

For efficient mill operation and energy utilization a good knowledge of
the charge dynamics in tumbling mill is essential.

However, dynamics of the charge inside any particulate material
processing equipment is complex and difficult to characterize in terms of
operating and design variables.

Reasons for optimization & simulation
For example: It has been estimated that 1.5 % of electrical energy in
USA is consumed in comminution processes.

realistic improvements in energy efficiency in comminution could
result 20 billion kWh energy savings in USA. That is about 15 % of
Autralias entire annual consumption of electrical energy.

in mineral processing plants 30-50% of power draw is used by
comminution (and for hard ores up to 70 %).

The benefits in optimization can be:

reduced unit operating costs (/ton treated).

increased throughput and production value.

improved downstream process performance, when the feed size
specifications met better.
How important is grinding ?

grinding operations in the mineral processing industry consume about
50% of the total processing cost.

in the US alone it was estimated that size reduction operations
consume 5% of the total electric power.

at the same time these processes have energy efficiencies of less
than 5% due to wasted collisions between grinding media that do not
catch mineral ore in between, or result in generating ultra-fine
particles.
How important is grinding ?

on a survey of the energy consumed in a number of
Canadian copper concentrators it was shown that the
average energy consumption in kWh/ton was 2.2 for
crushing, 11.6 for grinding and 2.6 for flotation (Joe,
1979).

it can be shown, using Bonds equation, that 19% extra
energy must be consumed in grinding one screen size
finer on a 2 screen series.

PRINCIPLES OF COMMINUTION

stresses may be generated by tensile or
compressive loading

the presence of cracks or flaws in the
matrix which acts as sites for stress
concentration

increase in stress at crack tip is
proportional to square root of the length
of crack perpendicular to the stress
direction.
Strain of crystal lattice resulting
from tensile or compressive stress
Stress concentration at a crack tip
METHODS OF SIZE REDUCTION

Solids may be broken in eight or nine different ways but only four of them
are commonly used in size reduction machines.
They are
(1) compression, (Jaw crusher)
In general, compression is used for coarse reduction of hard solids,
to give relatively few fines
(2) impact, (Ball mill)
Impact gives coarse, medium or fine products
(3) attrition or rubbing (pulverizer)
The attrition yields very fine products from soft, nonabrasive
materials.
(4) cutting. ( pair of shears)
Cutting gives the definite particle size and some times definite shape
with few or no fines.

Cont.

Shatter
Induced by rapid application of
compressive stress.

occurs in industrial autogenous,
rod and ball mills.
PATTERN OF FRACTURE WHEN A
SINGLE PARTICLE BREAKS
Cont..

Cleavage

occurs at preferred surfaces.

produce several relatively
large fragments together with
much finer particles
Cont..

Attrition and Chipping:

occurs when the particle is large
and the stresses are not large
enough.

occurs in autogenous

generates a significant number
of particles that are much
smaller than the parent size
(birth process). parent particle is
not destroyed (no death process)

in contrast shatter and cleavage
give rise to both birth and death
processes
Cont..
OBJECTIVES OF COMMINUTION

production of a final product, e.g. construction material, coal

production of a product for the following benefication steps

-Classification

-sorting [liberation of the resources, value mineral]

-Leaching

-others (thermal, biological, etc. processing steps)


Evolution of Comminution Technologies
Chronology:

Manual comminution

Hammer mechanism (ca. 1512)

Edge runner (ca. 1800)

Ball mill (ca. 1890)

Vertical roller mill (ca. 1930)

High pressure grinding rolls (ca. 1985)

Horomill
Manual comminution (16th century)

Hammer mechanism (16/17th century)
Edge runner (18/19th century)
Why size Reduction?
stringent market specification

easy transport and handling of solid particles

increases the reactivity of solids especially in catalytic
reactions

it permits separation of unwanted ingredients by
mechanical separations

in mineral processing, it is required to break the lump minerals to
separate valuable minerals from intimately associated with gangue
minerals.
chemical reaction, the chemical reactivity of fine particles is
greater than that of the coarse particles.
colouring of pigment is considerably affected by the size of the particle.
for more intimate mixing of the solids can be achieved if the
particle size is small.
Comminution mechanisms in different grinding systems
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOLID PARTICLES
Particle shape

Particle size

Specific surface of mixture

Average particle size

Crushing mechanisms

LECTURES-2 & 3
PARTICLE SHAPE
this is defined as the surface-volume ratio for a sphere of
diameter D
p
divided by the surface-volume ratio for the particle
whose nominal size is Dp

the shape of an individual particle is conveniently expressed in terms
of the sphericity (
s
).

sphericity is independent of the particle size, for non-spherical
particle sphericity is defined by the relation


---------- (1)


where D
p
= equivalent diameter or nominal diameter of particle
s
p
= surface area of one particle
v
p
= volume of one particle

p p
p
s
s D
v 6
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
p
p
p
s
v
s
D
6
|
PARTICLE SIZE

Particle size is expressed in terms of diameter if it is a spherical
particle. Particles that are not equi--dimensional it is characterised by
second longest major dimensions.

Example: for needle like particles, particle size Dp would refer to
thickness rather than length of the particle
Equivalent diameter: D
pe
diameter of sphere having the same ratio of surface to volume
on the actual particle.


MIXED PARTICLE SIZES
in a sample of uniform particles of diameter (D
p
), the total volume of
particles is m/
p
where m and
p
are

the total mass of the sample
and the density of the particles, respectively. Since the volume of
one particle is v
p
,
the no. of particles in the sample N is


p p
v
m
N

=
the total surface area of the particles is , from equation (1) & (2)

---------- (2)
---------- (3)
Equation (2) & (3) can be applied to each fraction through which
surface areas can be estimated.
p p s
p
D
m
Ns A
|
6
= =
SPECIFIC SURFACE OF MIXTURE

specific surface of mixture is defined as the area occupied by the
mixture of particle per unit volume.





. (4)

where x
i
= mass fraction in a given increment
D
pavg
= arithmetic average of smallest and largest particle
diameter in increment.

=
= + + + =
n
i
pi
i
p s pn p s
n
p p s p p s
w
D
x
D
x
D
x
D
x
A
1
2
2
1
1
6 6 6 6
| | | |

AVERAGE PARTICLE SIZE

The average particle size for the mixture of particles is defined as given
below.





where = Volume surface mean diameter
= Sphericity of the particle
A
w
= Specific surface area of particles in m
2
/m
3


p
= Density of particles



p w
s
A
D
|
s
6
=

=
=
n
i
pi
i
s
D
x
D
1
1
s
|
s
D
Arithmetic mean diameter
( ) ( )
T
n
i
pi i
n
i
i
n
i
pi i
N
N
D N
N
D N
D

=
=
=
= =
1
1
1
Mass mean diameter

=
=
n
i
pi i w
D x D
1
Volume mean diameter
Number of particles in mixture
(
(
(
(

=
n
i
pi
i
V
D
x
D
1
1
3
p p
aD v =

= =
= ==
n
i
V
p
n
i
pi
i
p
w
D
a
D
x
a
N
1
3
1
3
1 1 1

CRUSHING MECHANISMS
There are four mechanism by which size reduction
occurs.

Compression

Impact

Shear

Attrition
COMPRESSION



as the name implies, crushing by compression is done between two
surfaces, with the work being done by one or both surfaces.


jaw crushers uses this mechanism of compression hence suitable for
reducing extremely hard and abrasive rock.


however, some jaw crushers employ attrition as well as compression and
are not as suitable for abrasive rock due to the rubbing action

Cont.
IMPACT

in crushing terminology, impact refers to the sharp, instantaneous
collision of one moving object against another.

both objects may be moving, such as a baseball bat connecting with
a fast ball, or one object may be motionless, such as a rock being struck
by hammer blows.



Impact is most useful in following
circumstances

when a cubical particle is needed

when finished product must be well graded
and must meet intermediate sizing
specifications, as well as top and bottom
specifications

when ores must be broken along natural
cleavage lines in order to free and separate
undesirable inclusions (such as mica in
feldspar)


Continued

shear consists of a trimming or cleaving action rather than the
rubbing action associated with attrition.

Example, :single-roll crushers employ shear




.Continued
SHEAR
Shear crushing is used

when material is somewhat friable and
has a relatively low silica content

for primary crushing with a reduction
ratio of 6 to 1

when a relatively coarse product is
desired, usually larger than 11/2" (38mm)
top size

attrition is a term applied to the reduction of materials by scrubbing it
between two hard surfaces.

Example :Hammer mills operate with close clearances between the hammers
and the screen bars and size is reduced by attrition combined with shear and
impact reduction.

Continued
ATTRITION
Attrition crushing is most useful in the
following circumstances:

when material is friable or not too abrasive

when a closed-circuit system

CHARACTERISTICS OF AN IDEAL
CRUSHER
have a large capacity

require a small power input per unit of product

yield a product of the single size or the size distribution required
Energy Consumed in Crushing

1. Deforming the particle to its elastic limit

2. Compacting particles after fracture

3. Overcoming friction between particles

4. Elastically deforming milling surfaces

5. Deformation of fractured particles

There are many approaches towards reduction in the
specific grinding energy requirement that deserve attention
Use of additives in the grinding circuits
Application of thermal shock treatment
Improvement in the design of the comminution device.

Crushing Efficiency

Crushing efficiency is defined as the ratio of the surface energy created by
crushing to the energy absorbed by the solid.



where


is the efficiency

e
s
is the energy per unit area, feet times pounds force per square foot

A
wb
is the surface area per unit mass of product

A
wa
is the surface area per unit mass of feed

W
n
is the power input to the crusher


( )
c
wa wb s
n
A A e
W
q

=
Factors Influencing Choice of Size Reduction
Equipment

Feed and Product Size

Feed size Product size
Coarse Crushers 1500 - 40mm 50 - 5mm
Intermediate Crushers 50 - 5mm 5 - 0.1mm
Fine Crushers. grinders 5 - 2mm <0.1 m
Fine Milling <0.2mm down to 0.01 m


Nature of Material

1. Hardness - very hard materials are better in low speed or low
contact machines
2. Structure - fibrous materials need tearing or cutting action

3. Moisture content - materials with 5 - 50% moisture do not flow
easily and can be difficult to process

4. Friability

5. Stickiness - sticky materials need easily cleaned machines

6. Soapiness - if coefficient of friction is low, crushing may be difficult
7. Explosives - need inert atmosphere
8. Hazardous to health - need good confinement
9. Closeness of distribution


Principal Types of Size Reduction Equipment
are as Follows

1. Jaw Crusher (coarse and fine)
2. Gyratory Crusher
3. Crushing Rolls

B. Grinders (Intermediate and fine)

1. Hammer Mills
2. Rolling Compression Mills
3 .Attrition Mills
4 Tumbling Mills

C. Ultrafine Grinders

1. Hammer Mills with Internal Classification
2. Fluid Energy Mills
3 .Agitated Mills

D. Cutting Machines
1.Knife Cutters; Dicers; Slitters
STAGES OF SIZE REDUCTION
Explosive shattering from infinite to 1 m
Primary crushing from 1 m to 100 mm
Secondary crushing from 100 mm to 10 mm
Coarse grinding from 10mm to 1mm
Fine grinding from 1mm to 100 microns
Very fine grinding from 100micron to 10 micron
Super fine grinding below 10 microns
BASIC CRUSHING PLANT FLOW SHEET
Modes of operation of grinding equipment

Open circuit grinding

simplest method of operating a mill. Product passes straight through, no
classifying screens, no recycling of oversize

wide size distribution results as some particles pass through quickly,
others stay for some time (also resulting in higher energy consumption)

Free crushing

as with open circuit, but residence time kept to a minimum, often by
material falling through action zone under influence of gravity

production of undersize reduced, and lower energy consumption, but
large size range


Choke feeding

discharge is restricted by inserting a screen in the outlet, so material
stays choked in the action zone until reduced to a small enough size
long residence time results in undersize particles and additional energy
consumption useful to prevent oversize, and a large reduction ratio can
be achieved.

Closed circuit grinding

residence time kept short, but classifier system at the outlet separates
oversize material and recycles it

more energy efficient, with narrower range of final particle size

additional cost of classifier system
COMMINUTION GOVERNING LAWS
RITTINGERS LAW

KICKS LAW

GENARALIZED LAW

BONDS LAW

The work required in crushing is proportional to the new surface created.
Crushing efficiency (
c
) is constant and for a given machine and feed material is
independent of the sizes of feed and product. If the sphericities
a
and
b
are equal
and the mechanical efficiency is constant, various constants in efficiency equation
can be combined into a simple constant K
r
and Rittingers law is
RITTINGERS LAW
Rittingers law is applicable for coarse crushing
where
P = power
= feed rate
and are the volume surface mean diameters of feed and product respectively.
This applies where energy input per unit mass is not too high. K
r
can be
determined from the experiments conducted on machine of the type to be used
and material to be crushed.
(

=
sa sb
r
D D
K
m
P 1 1

m
sa
D
sb
D
Kicks proposed a law based on the stress analysis of plastic deformation
within the elastic limits, which states that the work for crushing a given mass of
material is constant for the same reduction ratio, that is, the ratio of an initial
particle size to the final particle size.

according to Kicks law, the energy required for size reduction is given by



KICKS LAW
Kicks law is accurate in crushing range above 10mm size
sb
sa
k
D
D
K
m
P
ln =

A generalized relation for both cases is the differential equation

when
n = 1 leads to Kicks law

n = 2 Rittingers law
s
n
s
D
D Kd
m
P
d =
|
.
|

\
|

Work required to produce particle of size D

p
from very coarse feed is
proportional to the square root of the surface to volume ratio of the product
p
p
v
s
BONDS LAW
=
p
D
6
p
p
v
s
p
b
D
K
m
P
=

K
b
= constant, depends on the type of machine and on the material

This is more realistic in estimating the power requirement of commercial
crushers and grinders.
Bonds law applicable size range: 10-1000 m (Ball Mills and Rod Mills)
WORK INDEX (W
i)
Work index, W
i
is defined as the gross energy requirement in
kilowatthours per ton of feed needed to reduce a large feed to such a size
that 80 percent of the product passes a 100-m screen.
This definition leads to a relation between K
b
and W
i
. If D
p
is in millimeters,
P in kilowatts, and in tons per hour
If 80 percent of the feed passes a mesh size of D
pa
millimeters and 80
percent of the product passes a mesh size of D
pb
millimeters, it leads to
the equation


The work index includes the friction in the crusher, and the power
given by above equation is gross power.


|
|
.
|

\
|
=
pa pb
D D m
P 1 1
3162 . 0

Typical work indexes for dry crushing

#
or wet grinding
Material Specific gravity Work index, W
i
Bauxite
Cement clinker
Clay
Coal
Coke
Iron ore (Hematite)
Limestone
Quartz
Trap rock
2.20
3.15
2.51
1.4
1.31
3.53
2.66
2.65
2.87
8.78
13.45
6.30
13.00
15.13
12.84
12.74
13.57
19.32
# for dry grinding, multifly by 4/3
Grinding tough materials at cryogenic temperatures means that they are
brittle enough to be ground to very fine particle sizes.
Cryogenic Grinding
Cryo-grinding systems, inject controlled amounts of liquid nitrogen to
regulate the heat of the grinding mill and the allow higher material
throughputs at any time of year.
Inert Grinding

Organic materials have an increased risk of explosion when very
fine particles combine. The use of nitrogen to inert the atmosphere
during the grinding process minimises safety hazards associated with
explosions.
Raw material passing along a conveyor is cooled using controlled amounts of liquid
nitrogen which allows for finer grinding and increased throughputs.
CRYOGENIC-GRINDING PROCESS

readily available,
easy handling,
low technical input,
easy control,
good heat transition, and
inert atmosphere.

Economic aspect of Cryogenic Grinding
The utilisation of liquid nitrogen (LN
2
) has undoubtedly numerous
advantages in applications, such as:
Applications
New Materials preparation
Space Research
Extracting Metals & Plastics from Electronic waste
target Industries like
Mineral based Industries
Chemicals, Food & Pharmaceuticals
Rubber,
Plastics,
Manufacturing etc.,.