Manufacturing Lecture

Manufacturing Technology I
ME 303
Fundamentals of Metal Casting
Chapter 10
200 !ohn "iley # $ons% Inc& M ' (roo)er% Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3*e
F+,-.ME,T./$ 0F MET./ C.$TI,(
1& 0)er)ie1 of Casting Technology
2& 2eating and 'ouring
3& $olidification and Cooling
$olidification 'rocesses
$tarting 1or3 material is either a li4uid or is in a highly
plastic condition% and a part is created through
solidification of the material
$olidification processes can 5e classified according to

engineering material processed6
Metals
Ceramics% specifically glasses
'olymers and polymer matri7 composites

8'MCs9
Figure 10&1 Classification of solidification processes&
Casting
'rocess in 1hich molten metal flo1s 5y gra)ity or other
force into a mold 1here it solidifies in the shape of the
mold ca)ity
The term casting also applies to the part made in the

process
$teps in casting seem simple6

1& Melt the metal
2& 'our it into a mold
3& /et it free:e
Casting include both the casting of ingots and

the casting of shapes.
The ingot is associated with the primary metals

industry, and that is simple in shape and
intended for subsequent reshaping by processes
such as rolling or forging.
Shape casting involves the production of more

complex geometries that are much closer to the
final desired shape of the part.
Capa5ilities and .d)antages of Casting
Can create comple7 part geometries
Can create 5oth e7ternal and internal shapes
$ome casting processes are net shape; others are near

net shape
Can produce )ery large parts
$ome casting methods are suited to mass production
Can 5e performed on any metal that can 5e heated to

the li4uid state
-isad)antages of Casting
-ifferent disad)antages for different casting processes6
/imitations on mechanical properties
'oor dimensional accuracy and surface

finish for some processes; e&g&% sand
casting
$afety ha:ards to 1or3ers due to hot molten

metals
En)ironmental pro5lems
'arts Made 5y Casting
<ig parts
Engine 5loc3s and heads for automoti)e

)ehicles% 1ood 5urning sto)es% machine
frames% rail1ay 1heels% pipes% church 5ells%
5ig statues% pump housings
$mall parts
-ental cro1ns% =e1elry% small statues% frying

pans
.ll )arieties of metals can 5e cast% ferrous and

nonferrous
0)er)ie1 of Casting Technology
Casting is usually performed in a foundry

Foundry > factory e4uipped for ma3ing molds% melting and
handling molten metal% performing the casting process%
and cleaning the finished casting
"or3ers 1ho perform casting are called foundrymen

The Mold in Casting
Contains ca)ity 1hose geometry determines part shape
.ctual si:e and shape of ca)ity must 5e

slightly o)ersi:ed to allo1 for shrin3age of
metal during solidification and cooling
Molds are made of a )ariety of materials%

including sand% plaster% ceramic% and metal
0pen Molds and Closed Molds
Figure 10&2 T1o forms of mold6 8a9 open mold% simply a container
in the shape of the desired part; and 859 closed mold% in 1hich
the mold geometry is more comple7 and re4uires a gating
system 8passage1ay9 leading into the ca)ity&
Casting terminology:
'attern
Flas3
Cope
-rag
Core
Core print
Mold ca)ity
?iser
(ating system
'ouring cup
$prue 8or do1nsprue9
?unners
(ates
@ents
'arting line or parting

surface
-raft
Core 5o7
Casting
Foundry
Foundrymen
The important factors in casting operations:
Solidification of the metal from its molten state

(which usually is accompanied by shrinage!"
#low of the molten metal into the mold cavity"
$eat transfer during solidification and cooling of

the metal in the mold"
%old material and its influence on the casting

process.
T1o Categories of Casting 'rocesses
1& E7penda5le mold processes uses an e7penda5le
mold 1hich must 5e destroyed to remo)e casting
Mold materials6 sand% plaster% and similar

materials% plus 5inders
2& 'ermanent mold processes uses a permanent mold
1hich can 5e used o)er and o)er to produce many
castings
Made of metal 8or% less commonly% a

ceramic refractory material
.d)antages and -isad)antages
More intricate geometries are possi5le 1ith e7penda5le

mold processes
'art shapes in permanent mold processes are limited 5y

the need to open the mold
'ermanent mold processes are more economic in high

production operations
$and Casting Mold
Figure 10&2 859 $and casting mold&
$and Casting Mold Terms
Mold consists of t1o hal)es6
Cope > upper half of mold
Drag > 5ottom half
Mold hal)es are contained in a 5o7% called a flask
The t1o hal)es separate at the parting line

Forming the Mold Ca)ity
Mold ca)ity is formed 5y pac3ing sand around a pattern%

1hich has the shape of the part
"hen the pattern is remo)ed% the remaining ca)ity of the

pac3ed sand has desired shape of cast part
The pattern is usually o)ersi:ed to allo1 for shrin3age of

metal during solidification and cooling
$and for the mold is moist and contains a 5inder to

maintain its shape
+se of a Core in the Mold Ca)ity
The mold ca)ity pro)ides the e7ternal surfaces of the

cast part
In addition% a casting may ha)e internal surfaces%

determined 5y a core% placed inside the mold ca)ity to
define the interior geometry of part
In sand casting% cores are generally made of sand

(ating $ystem
Channel through 1hich molten metal flo1s into ca)ity from
outside of mold
Consists of a downsprue% through 1hich metal enters a

runner leading to the main ca)ity
.t the top of do1nsprue% a pouring cup is often used to

minimi:e splash and tur5ulence as the metal flo1s into
do1nsprue
?iser
?eser)oir in the mold 1hich is a source of li4uid metal to
compensate for shrin3age of the part during solidification
The riser must 5e designed to free:e after the main

casting in order to satisfy its function
2eating the Metal
2eating furnaces are used to heat the metal to molten

temperature sufficient for casting
The heat re4uired is the sum of6

1& 2eat to raise temperature to melting point
2& 2eat of fusion to con)ert from solid to
li4uid
3& 2eat to raise molten metal to desired
temperature for pouring
The heat energy required

810&19
1here H > total heat re4uired to raise the temperature
of the metal to the pouring temperature% ! 8<tu9; >
density% g*cm3 8l5m*in39; Cs > 1eight specific heat
for the solid metal% !*g 8<tu*l5mAF9; Tm > melting
temperature of the metal% C8F9; To > starting
temperature > usually am5ient% C 8F9; Hf > heat of
fusion% !*g 8<tu*l5m9; Ct > 1eight specific heat of the
li4uid metal% !*gAC 8<tu*l5mAF9; Tp > pouring
temperature% C 8F9; and V > )olume of metal 5eing
heated% cm3 8in39&
+se of E4& 810&19 is complicated 5y the
follo1ing factors6
1& $pecific heat and other thermal properties of a solid metal )ary
1ith temperature% especially if the metal undergoes a change
of phase during heating&
2& . metalBs specific heat may 5e different in the solid and li4uid
states&
3& Most casting metals are alloys% and most alloys melt o)er a
temperature range 5et1een a solidus and li4uidus rather than
at a single melting point; thus the heat of fusion cannot 5e
applied so simply as indicated a5o)e&
C& The property )alues re4uired in the e4uation for a particular
alloy are not a)aila5le in most cases&
D& There are significant heat losses to the en)ironment during
heating&
'ouring the Molten Metal
Figure D&2 -isposa5le pattern mold

.fter 'hillip F& 0st1ald% !airo Muno:% Manufacturing 'rocesses and $ystems% 1EE% !ohn "iley # $ons
'ouring the Molten Metal
For this step to 5e successful% metal must flo1 into all

regions of the mold% most importantly the main ca)ity%
5efore solidifying
Factors that determine success
'ouring temperature
'ouring rate
Tur5ulence
The difference 5et1een the temperature at pouring

and the temperature at 1hich free:ing 5egins is
sometimes referred to as the superheat&
Pouring rate refers to the )olumetric rate at 1hich

the molten metal is poured into the mold&
Tur5ulent flo1 tends to accelerate the formation of

metal o7ides that can 5ecome entrapped during
solidification% thus degrading the 4uality of casting&
Tur5ulence also aggra)ates mold erosion&
&ngineering 'nalysis of (ouring
?elationship that go)ern the flo1 of li4uid metal

through the gating system and the mold is
<ernoulliBs theorem

810&29
1here h > head% cm 8in9% p > pressure on the li4uid% ,*cm2
8l5*in29; > density% g*cm3 8l5m*in39; v > flo1 )elocity%
cm*s 8in*sec9; g > gra)itational acceleration constant%
EF1 cm*s 832&212 > 3FG in*sec*sec9; and F > head
losses due to friction% cm 8in9&
<ernoulliBs e4uation can 5e simplified

810&39

The flo1 )elocity
810&C9

The )olumetric flo1 rate
810&D9
The time re4uired to fill a mold ca)ity of )olume @ as

810&G9
#luidity
Fluidity is a measure of the capa5ility of a metal to

flo1 into and fill the mold 5efore free:ing&
Factors affecting fluidity include6
'ouring temperature relati)e to melting point&
@iscosity of the li4uid metal
2eat transfer to the surroundings
$urface tension
Inclusions
Composition of the alloy% particularly 1ith respect to

the metalBs solidification mechanism
2eat of fusion
The characteristics of casting parameters influence
fluidity:
%old design
%old material and its surface characteristics
)egree of superheat
*ate of pouring
$eat transfer
Figure 10&3 $piral mold test for fluidity% in 1hich fluidity is
measured as the length of the spiral channel that is filled 5y the
molten metal prior to solidification
Manufacturing% Engineering # Technology% Fifth Edition% 5y $erope Halpa3=ian and $te)en ?& $chmid&
I$<, 0A13A1CFEGDAF& 200G 'earson Education% Inc&% +pper $addle ?i)er% ,!& .ll rights reser)ed&
Fluidity Test
Figure 10.9 A test method for fluidity
using a spiral mold. The fluidity index is
the length of the solidified metal in the
spiral passage. The greater the length
of the solidified metal, the greater is its
fluidity.
$olidification of Metals
Transformation of molten metal back into solid state
Issues associated with solidification
the time for a metal to free:e%
shrin3age%
directional solidification% and
riser design&
!olidification differs depending on whether the metal is
. pure element or
.n alloy
Cooling Cur)e for a 'ure Metal
" pure metal solidifies at a constant temperature e#ual to

its free$ing point %same as melting point&
Figure '()* Cooling curve for a pure metal during casting)
$olidification of 'ure Metals
Figure 10&1 8a9 Temperature as a function of time for the solidification of pure metals& ,ote
that the free:ing ta3es place at a constant temperature& 859 -ensity as a function of time
Temperature -istri5ution during Metal $olidification
Figure 10&10 Temperature
distri5ution at the interface
of the mold 1all and the
li4uid metal during the
solidification of metals in
casting
$olidification of 'ure Metals
Due to chilling action of mold wall+ a thin skin of solid

metal is formed at the interface immediately after
pouring
!kin thickness increases to form a shell around the

molten metal as solidification progresses
,ate of free$ing depends on
heat transfer into mold%
thermal properties of the metal

$olidified $3in on a $teel Casting
Figure 10&11 $olidified s3in on a steel casting& The remaining molten metal is poured out
at the times indicated in the figure& 2ollo1 ornamental and decorati)e o5=ects are made 5y
a process called slush casting% 1hich is 5ased on this principle& !ource .fter 2& F& Taylor%
!& "ulff% and M& C& Flemings
Figure 10&D Characteristic grain structure in a casting of a pure metal%
sho1ing randomly oriented grains of small si:e near the mold 1all% and
large columnar grains oriented to1ard the center of the casting&
$olidification of .lloys
-ost alloys free$e over a temperature range rather than

at a single temperature
Figure '(). %a& /hase diagram for a copper nickel alloy system
and %b& associated cooling curve for a 0(12i 0(1Cu
composition during casting)
Figure 10& Characteristic grain structure in an alloy casting%
sho1ing segregation of alloying components in center of casting&
Cast $tructures of $olidified Metals
Figure 10.2 Schematic illustration of three cast
structures of metals solidified in a square mold: a! pure
metals" #! solid$solution alloys" and c! structure
o#tained #y using nucleating agents. Source: After %.
&. Form, '. F. &allace, '. (. &al)er, and A. *i#ula
Figure 10.+ ,e-elopment of a preferred
te.ture at a cool mold /all. 0ote that only
fa-ora#ly oriented grains gro/ a/ay from
the surface of the mold
&ffects of cooling rate
!low cooling rates % 10

2
34s& or long local solidification
times result in coarse dendritic structures with large
spacing between dendrites5 arms)
For faster cooling rates % '(

*
34s& or short local
solidification times the structure becomes finer+ with
smaller dendrite arm spacing)
For still higher cooling rates %on other of 10

6
to 10
8

34s& the structure are developed are amorphous)
Eutectic .lloys
Figure G&3 'hase diagram for the tin lead alloy system&
.lloy $olidification
Figure 10.1 Schematic illustration of alloy solidification and temperature distri#ution in the solidifying
metal. 0ote the formation of dendrites in the mushy 2one.
$olidification of Iron and Car5on $teels
Figure 10.3 a! Solidification patterns for gray cast iron in a 140$mm 5$in.! square casting. 0ote that after 11
minutes of cooling, dendrites reach each other, #ut the casting is still mushy throughout. 6t ta)es a#out t/o hours for
this casting to solidify completely. #! Solidification of car#on steels in sand and chill metal! molds. 0ote the
difference in solidification patterns as the car#on content increases. Source: After 7. F. 8ishop and &. S. 9ellini
<asic Types of Cast $tructures
Figure 10.: Schematic illustration of three #asic types of cast structures: a! columnar dendritic" #! equi2.ed
dendritic" and c! equia.ed nondendritic. Source: *ourtesy of ,. Apelian
Cast $tructures
Figure 10.5 Schematic illustration of cast structures in a! plane front, single phase, and #!
plane front, t/o phase. Source: *ourtesy of ,. Apelian
$olidification Time
!olidification takes time

Total solidification time T
T!
6 time re#uired for casting to
solidify after pouring
T
T!
depends on si$e and shape of casting by
relationship known as Chvorinov7s ,ule
where T
T!
6 total solidification time; V 6 volume of the
casting; " 6 surface area of casting; n 6 e8ponent with
typical value 6 9; and C
m
is mold constant)
n
m TS
A
V
C = T

Mold Constant in Ch)orino)Is ?ule
-old constant C
m
depends on
Mold material
Thermal properties of casting metal
'ouring temperature relati)e to melting point

Value of C
m
for a given casting operation can be based
on e8perimental data from previous operations carried
out using same mold material+ metal+ and pouring
temperature+ even though the shape of the part may be
#uite different
"hat Ch)orino)Is ?ule Tells +s
" casting with a higher volume to surface area ratio

cools and solidifies more slowly than one with a lower
ratio
To feed molten metal to main ca)ity% T
T!
for
riser must greater than T
T!
for main casting
!ince mold constants of riser and casting will be e#ual+

design the riser to have a larger volume to area ratio so
that the main casting solidifies first
This minimi:es the effects of shrin3age

$hrin3age in $olidification and Cooling
Figure '(): !hrinkage of a cylindrical casting during solidification
and cooling %(& starting level of molten metal immediately after
pouring; %'& reduction in level caused by li#uid contraction during
cooling %dimensional reductions are e8aggerated for clarity&)
$hrin3age in $olidification and Cooling
Figure '(): %9& reduction in height and formation of shrinkage
cavity caused by solidification shrinkage; %;& further reduction in
height and diameter due to thermal contraction during cooling of
solid metal %dimensional reductions are e8aggerated for clarity&)
$olidification $hrin3age
<ccurs in nearly all metals because the solid phase has

a higher density than the li#uid phase
Thus+ solidification causes a reduction in volume per unit

weight of metal
=8ception cast iron with high C content
(raphiti:ation during final stages of free:ing

causes e7pansion that counteracts )olumetric
decrease associated 1ith phase change
To compensate for solidification shrinkage

J In sand casting+ li#uid metal is supplied through
risers)
J In die casting+ the molten metal is applied under
pressure)

$hrin3age .llo1ance
/atternmakers account for solidification shrinkage and

thermal contraction by making mold cavity oversi$ed
"mount by which mold is made larger relative to final

casting si$e is called pattern shrinkage allowance
Casting dimensions are e8pressed linearly+ so

allowances are applied accordingly
-irectional $olidification
To minimi$e damaging effects of shrinkage+ it is

desirable for regions of the casting most distant from the
li#uid metal supply to free$e first and for solidification to
progress from these remote regions toward the riser%s&
Thus% molten metal is continually a)aila5le

from risers to pre)ent shrin3age )oids
The term directional solidification descri5es

this aspect of free:ing and methods 5y
1hich it is controlled
.chie)ing -irectional $olidification
Desired directional solidification is achieved

J using Chvorinov7s ,ule to design the casting
J its orientation in the mold+ and
J the riser system that feeds it
>ocate sections of the casting with lower V4" ratios away

from riser+ so free$ing occurs first in these regions+ and
the li#uid metal supply for the rest of the casting remains
open
Chills internal or e8ternal heat sinks that cause rapid

free$ing in certain regions of the casting
E7ternal Chills
Figure '()? %a& =8ternal chill to encourage rapid free$ing of the
molten metal in a thin section of the casting; and %b& the likely
result if the e8ternal chill were not used)
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Types of Internal and E7ternal Chills used in Casting
Figure 10&1C @arious types of 8a9 internal and 859 e7ternal chills 8dar3 areas at
corners9 used in castings to eliminate porosity caused 5y shrin3age& Chills are
placed in regions 1here there is a larger )olume of metal% as sho1n in 8c9&
-irectional $olidification
It is also important to a)oid premature solidification in

sections of the mold nearest the riser&
J especially the passage1ay 5et1een the riser and the
main ca)ity&
J it should not free:e 5efore the casting% 1hich 1ould
isolate the casting from the riser&
.lthough it is generally desira5le to minimi:e the )olume

in the connection 8to reduce 1asted metal9
J The passage1ay is usually made short in length% so
that it a5sor5s heat from 5oth the riser and the
casting&
?iser -esign
,iser is waste metal that is separated from the casting

and remelted to make more castings
To minimi$e waste in the unit operation+ it is desirable for

the volume of metal in the riser to be a minimum
!ince the geometry of the riser is normally selected to

ma8imi$e the V4" ratio+ this allows riser volume to be
reduced to the minimum possible value
,isers can be designed in different forms)

J !ide riser attached to the side of the casting
J Top riser connected to the top surface of the
casting)
J <pen riser e8posed to the outside at the top surface
of the cope) %promote faster solidification&
J @lind riser entirely enclosed within the mold
Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, Fifth Edition, by Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Casting of an .luminum 'iston
Figure 10&1G .luminum piston for an
internal com5ustion engine6 8a9 asA
cast and 859 after machining&
Figure 10&1 $imulation of mold filling
and solidification& 8a9 3& seconds after
start of pour& ,ote that the mushy :one
has 5een esta5lished 5efore the mold is
filled completely& 859 +sing a )ent in the
mold for remo)al of entrapped air% D
seconds after pour&

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Manufacturing Technology I

$olidification processes can 5e classified according to

Ceramics% specifically glasses

'olymers and polymer matri7 composites

The term casting also applies to the part made in the

$teps in casting seem simple6

Casting include both the casting of ingots and

The ingot is associated with the primary metals

Shape casting involves the production of more

Can create comple7 part geometries

Can create 5oth e7ternal and internal shapes

$ome casting processes are net shape; others are near

Can produce )ery large parts

$ome casting methods are suited to mass production

Can 5e performed on any metal that can 5e heated to

-ifferent disad)antages for different casting processes6

/imitations on mechanical properties

'oor dimensional accuracy and surface

$afety ha:ards to 1or3ers due to hot molten

Engine 5loc3s and heads for automoti)e

-ental cro1ns% =e1elry% small statues% frying

.ll )arieties of metals can 5e cast% ferrous and

Casting is usually performed in a foundry

"or3ers 1ho perform casting are called foundrymen

Contains ca)ity 1hose geometry determines part shape

.ctual si:e and shape of ca)ity must 5e

Molds are made of a )ariety of materials%

$prue 8or do1nsprue9

'arting line or parting

Solidification of the metal from its molten state

#low of the molten metal into the mold cavity"

$eat transfer during solidification and cooling of

%old material and its influence on the casting

Mold materials6 sand% plaster% and similar

Made of metal 8or% less commonly% a

More intricate geometries are possi5le 1ith e7penda5le

'art shapes in permanent mold processes are limited 5y

'ermanent mold processes are more economic in high

Mold consists of t1o hal)es6

Cope > upper half of mold

Drag > 5ottom half

Mold hal)es are contained in a 5o7% called a flask

The t1o hal)es separate at the parting line

Mold ca)ity is formed 5y pac3ing sand around a pattern%

"hen the pattern is remo)ed% the remaining ca)ity of the

The pattern is usually o)ersi:ed to allo1 for shrin3age of

$and for the mold is moist and contains a 5inder to

The mold ca)ity pro)ides the e7ternal surfaces of the

In addition% a casting may ha)e internal surfaces%

In sand casting% cores are generally made of sand

Consists of a downsprue% through 1hich metal enters a

.t the top of do1nsprue% a pouring cup is often used to

The riser must 5e designed to free:e after the main

2eating furnaces are used to heat the metal to molten

The heat re4uired is the sum of6

Figure D&2 -isposa5le pattern mold

For this step to 5e successful% metal must flo1 into all

Factors that determine success

The difference 5et1een the temperature at pouring

Pouring rate refers to the )olumetric rate at 1hich

Tur5ulent flo1 tends to accelerate the formation of

?elationship that go)ern the flo1 of li4uid metal

<ernoulliBs e4uation can 5e simplified