Special Diodes

GRK PRASAD
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPT. OF ECE
K L UNIVERSITY
ramguda1978@kluniversity.in
ZENER DIODE
TUNNEL DIODE
SCHOTTKY BARRIER DIODE (SBD)
VARACTOR DIODE
PHOTO DIODE
LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED)
SPECIAL DIODES
ZENER DIODE
+ -
V
Z
I
Z
SYMBOL
-V
ZK
-V
Z0
-V
Z
-I
ZK
-I
ZT
I

V

Slope = 1/r
Z
0
V = I r
Z
V
i
Q
I
ZK
Knee Current (from data sheets) I
ZT
Test Current
V
Z
Zener Voltage r
Z
Incremental (Dynamic) Resistance

Used in designing Voltage Regulators
Operate in Break down region
Current flows in to cathode
Cathode positive w.r.t. anode
Can operate safely up to 70 mA
V
ZO
and V
ZK
are approximately equal
The dependence of Zener Voltage on temperature is given by
Temperature coefficient TC or temco.
V
Z
= V
ZO
+ r
Z
I
Z
For I
Z
> I
ZK
and
V
Z
> V
ZO
TUNNEL DIODE
A tunnel diode or
Esaki diode is a type of semiconductor diode
which is capable of very fast operation, well into
the microwave frequency region
It was invented in August 1957 by Leo Esaki
These diodes have a heavily doped pn
junction only some 10 nm (100 ) wide
TUNNELING PHENOMINON
Tunnel Diode Operation
When the semiconductor is very highly doped (the
doping is greater than No) the Fermi level goes above the
conduction band for n-type and below valence band for
ptype material. These are called degenerate materials.
Tunnel Diode Operation
A small forward bias is applied. Potential barrier is still very high
no noticeable injection and forward current through the junction.
However, electrons in the conduction band of the n region will
tunnel to the empty states of the valence band in p region. This
will create a forward bias tunnel current
Tunnel Diode Operation :
With a larger voltage the energy of the majority of electrons in
the n-region is equal to that of the empty states (holes) in the
valence band of p-region; this will produce maximum tunneling
current

As the forward bias continues to increase, the
number of electrons in the n side that are directly
opposite to the empty states in the valence band (in
terms of their energy) decrease. Therefore decrease
in the tunneling current will start.
As more forward voltage is applied, the tunneling current
drops to zero. But the regular diode forward current due
to electron hole injection increases due to lower
potential barrier.
With further voltage increase, the tunnel diode I-
V characteristic is similar to that of a regular p-n
diode..
Applications of tunnel diode
They are used in low power amplifiers
DLVA-Detector Log Video Amplifiers, microwave
and RF power monitors, high-frequency
triggers, ALC(Automatic level control) loops,
zero bias detectors, ACP (Advanced Circuit
Program)tunnel diode circuits, etc.
Since they are more resistant to nuclear
radiation, tunnel diodes are used in space
applications like amplifiers for satellite
communications.

It is a metal-semiconductor (MS) diode. (These are the oldest diodes). It
is semiconductor diode with a low forward voltage drop and a very
fast switching action. It is also known as hot carrier diode

Metal contact with moderately doped n type material.
Typical metals used are molybdenum, platinum, chromium or tungsten

The general shape of the Schottky diode and I-V characteristics are
similar to PN junction diodes, but the details of current flow are
different.

In a PN junction diodes, current is due to
Recombination in the depletion layer under small forward bias.
Hole injection from p
+
side under larger forward bias.

In a Schottky diodes current is due to
Electron injection from the semiconductor to the metal.
The most important difference between the p-n and Schottky
diode is reverse recovery time. Where in a p-n diode the reverse
recovery time can be in the order of hundreds of nanoseconds
and less than 100 ns for fast diodes,
Schottky diodes do not have a recovery time, as there is nothing
to recover
The switching time is 100 ps for the small signal diodes, and up to
tens of nanoseconds for special high-capacity power diodes. With
p-n junction switching, there is also a reverse recovery current,
which in high-power semiconductors brings increased EMI noise.
With Schottky diodes switching essentially instantly with only
slight capacitive loading, this is much less of a concern.
kT kT
qV
T A I I I
B A
e where 1 e
2 *
s s
u
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
= A
where u
B
is Schottky barrier height,
V
A
is applied voltage,
A is area,
A
*
is Richardsons constant.
V I cHARECTERISTICS
Current is conducted by majority carrier (electrons).
Switching speed of the SBD is much higher.
The forward voltage of SBD is lower than that of PN junction
diode.
SBD
Forward Voltage Drop
PN diode
Forward Voltage Drop

Silicon 0.3V 0.5V 0.6V 0.8V

V I cHARECTERISTICS
VARACTOR DIODE
Also known as Varicap Diode
Is a device whose reactance can be varied in a
controlled manner with a bias voltage.
It is a p-n junction with a special impurity profile, and
its capacitance variation is very sensitive to reverse-
biased voltage.
Are widely used in parametric amplification, harmonic
generation, mixing, detection, and voltage-variable
tuning
It was established that there is a region of uncovered
charge on either side of the junction that together the
regions makes up the duplication region and define the
depletion width W
d

EQUATION FOR CAPACITANCE
The transmission capacitance (C
t
) established by
the isolated uncovered charges is determined by
Where c is the permitivity of the semiconductor materials,
A the p-n junction area and
W
d
the depletion width.
Transition capacitance under reverse bias

Diffusion capacitance under forward bias

Used in automatic tuning of radio receivers

VARACTOR DIODE
PHOTO DIODE
A photodiode is a type of photodetector capable of
converting light into either current or voltage
Reverse biased PN diode is exposed to light
Photons liberated causes breakage of covalent bonds
Liberation of electron hole pairs
Results in flow of reverse current across the junction
called photo current
Photo current is proportional to intensity of light
Photodiodes are similar to
regular semiconductor diodes except that they may be
either exposed (to detect vacuum UV or X-rays) or
packaged with a window or optical fiber connection to allow
light to reach the sensitive part of the device. Many diodes
designed for use specifically as a photodiode use a PIN
junction rather than a p-n junction, to increase the speed of
response.
A photodiode is designed to operate in reverse bias.
PHOTO ELECTRIC EFFECT
When a photon of sufficient energy strikes the diode, it excites an
electron, thereby creating a free electron (and a positively
charged electron hole). This mechanism is also known as the
inner photoelectric effect

. If the absorption occurs in the junction's depletion region, or one
diffusion length away from it, these carriers are swept from the
junction by the built-in field of the depletion region. Thus holes
move toward the anode, and electrons toward the cathode, and
a photocurrent is produced

This photo current is the sum of both the dark current (without
light) and the light current, so the dark current must be minimized
to enhance the sensitivity of the device
MATERIALS USED
The material used to make a photodiode is critical
to defining its properties, because only photons
with sufficient energy to excite electrons
across the material's bandgap will produce
significant photocurrents.
MATERIAL WAVE LENGTH
SILICON 190-1100
GERMANEUM 400-1700
INDIUMGALLIUM ARSINIDE 800-2600
LEAD SULPHIDE <1000-3500
V-I CHRACTERISTICS
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
Is shunt current
APPLICATIONS
1. PHOTO DETCTORS
2. PHOTO CONDUCTORS
3. PHOTO MULTIPLIERS
4. CHARGE COUPLED DEVICES
5. CD PLAYERS
6. SMOKE DETETORS
7. OPTO COUPLERS
PHOTO DIODE
The operation is inverse to that of a photo diode
It converts forward current in to light
Minority carriers are injected across the junction and diffuse
in to P & N regions
Minority carriers recombine with majority carriers emitting photons
Use direct band gap materials like Gallium Arsenide
Light emitted proportional to the no. of re-combinations
Wide range of applications in different types of displays
LED applications
Display instruments like DVMs
Colourful lights
Produce coherent light with narrow band width (Laser Diode
used in CD Players & Optical communications)
Opto-isolator combination of LED and Photo diode used to
reduce electrical interference on signal transmission in a system
and used in digital system design and design of medical
instruments to reduce risk of electric shock to patients
Direct band gap semiconductors used for LEDs: Galium Arsenide (Ga As)
Gallium Antimony (Ga Sb)
Arsenic, Antimony, Phosphorous
Impurities added: Group II materials like Zinc (Zn), Magnesium (Mg), Cadmium (Cd)
Donors: Group VI materials like Tellicum (Te), Sulphur (S) etc
Impurity Concentration: 10
17
10
18
/cm
3
for donor atoms and
10
17
10
19
/cm
3
for Acceptor atoms
Colours: Gallium Phosphide Zinc Oxide RED
Gallium Phosphide N GREEN
Silicon Carbide SiC YELLOW
Gallium Phosphide, P, N AMBER
PN PN DIODE(SHOCKLEY DIODE)
The Shockley diode (named after physicist William
Shockley) is a four layer semiconductor diode which was
one of the first semiconductor devices invented. It was
a "pnpn" diode.

It is equivalent to a thyristor with a disconnected gate.

Small signal Shockley diodes are no longer manufactured,
but the unidirectional thyristor breakover diode, also
known as the dynistor, is a functionally equivalent power
device.
With forward bias, the device can be in two
different "states". One conducts current, and the
other doesn't.
1. BLOCKING STATE
2. CONDUCTING STATE

BLOCKING STATE
j1 is forward biased. Holes can diffuse from pv to nv.
But this blocked because there is no source for
additional electrons in nv for the holes to recombine
with. An analogous argument holds for electrons across
j3. Total current, I, is more or less the reverse saturation
current for the middle junction j2.

CONDUCTING STATE
Component can also be seen
as two transistors:
In each transistor, carriers are injected
from the emitter to the base.
In a good transistor, most carriers can pass through the
base and reach the collector.
If the charges reach the collector, there is only one
forward-biased junction left to cross.
Therefore, the pnpn diode
conducts current
TRIGGERING
The base transport factors v and h
determine whether the pnpn-diode is
blocking or conducting. One can show
that (IC0v,h = saturation currents) :

I-V CHARACTERISTICS
APPLICATIONS
Trigger switch for an SCR
Relaxation oscillator.
Silicon Controlled Rectifier
INTRODUCTION:
The SCR is the most important special
semiconductor device. This device is popular for its
Forward-Conducting and Reverse-blocking
characteristics.
SCR can be used in high-power devices. For
example, in the central processing unit of the computer,
the SCR is used in switch mode power supply (SMPS).
The DIAC, a combination of two Shockley
Diodes, and the TRIAC, a combination of two SCRs
connected anti-parallelly are important power-control
devices.
The UJT is also used as an efficient switching device.
SILICON-CONTROLLED RECTIFIER
(SCR)
The silicon-controlled rectifier or semiconductor
controlled rectifier is a two-state device used for efficient
power control.

SCR is the parent member of the thyristor family and is
used in high-power electronics.Its constructional features,
physical operation and characteristics are explained in the
following sections.
Constructional Features
The SCR is a four-layer structure, either pnpn
or npnp, that effectively blocks current through two
terminals until it is turned ON by a small-signal at a third
terminal.
The SCR has two states: a high-current low-
impedance ON state and a low-current high-impedance
OFF state.
The basic transistor action in a four-layer pnp
n structure is analyzed first with only two terminals , and
then the third control input is introduced.
Physical Operation and
Characteristics:
The physical operation of the SCR can be explained
clearly with reference to the currentvoltage characteristics.
The forward-bias condition and reverse-bias condition
illustrate the conducting state and the reverse blocking state
respectively. Based on these two states a typical I V
characteristic of the SCR is shown in Fig. 8-2.
SCR in Forward Bias:
There are two different states in which we can examine the SCR in the
forward-biased condition:
(i) The high- impedance or forward-blocking state
(ii) The low-impedance or forward-conducting state
At a critical peak forward voltage Vp, the SCR switches from the blocking state
to the conducting state, as shown in Fig. 8-2.
A positive voltage places junction j1 and j3 under forward-bias, and the
centre junction j2 under reverse-bias.
The for ward voltage in the blocking state appears across the reverse-
biased junc tion j2 as the applied voltage V is increased. The voltage from the
anode A to cathode C, as shown in Fig. 8-1, is very small after switching to the
forward-conducting state, and all three junctions are forward-biased. The
junction j2 switches from reverse-bias to forward-bias..
SCR in Reverse Bias:
In the reverse-blocking state the junctions j1 and j3 are reverse-biased,
and j2 is forward-biased.
The supply of electrons and holes to junction j2 is restricted, and due to
the thermal generation of electronhole pairs near junctions j1 and j2 the device
current is a small saturation current.
In the reverse blocking condition the current remains small until avalanche
breakdown occurs at a large reverse-bias of several thousand volts.
An SCR pnpn structure is equivalent to one pnp transistor and one n
pn transistor sharing some common terminals.

Collector current I
C 1
=
1
i + I
CO 1
having a transfer ratio
1
for the pnp.
Collector current I
C 2
=
2
i + I
CO 2
having a transfer ratio a2 for the npn.
I
CO1
and

I
CO 2
stand for the respective collector-saturation currents.
I
C 1
=
1
i + I
CO 1
= I
B 2 .
(8-1)

I
C 2
=
2
i + I
CO 2
= I
B 1
(8-2)

The total current through the SCR is the sum of iC1 and iC2:
I
C 1
+ I
=
i ..(8-3)
Substituting the values of collector current from Eqs. (8-1) and (8-2) in Eq. (8-3) we
get:
i (1 + 2) + I
CO 1
+ I
CO 2
= i
i = (I
CO 1
+ I
CO 2
) /(1- 1 + 2) ..(8-4)
Case I: When (1 + 2) 1, then the SCR current i infinite.
As the sum of the values of alphas tends to unity, the SCR current i increases rapidly.
The derivation is no
longer valid as (1 + 2) equals unity.
Case II: When (1 + 2 0, i.e., when the summation value of alphas goes to zero,
the SCR resultant current can be expressed as:
i = I
CO 1 +
I
CO 2
.(8-5)
The current, i, passing through the SCR is very small. It is the combined collector-
saturation currents of the two equivalent transistors as long as the sum (1 + 2) is
very small or almost near zero.
IV Characteristics of the SCR:
Forward-Blocking State:
When the device is biased in the forward-blocking state, as shown in Fig. 8-
4(a), the applied voltage appears primarily across the reverse-biased junction j2. Al
though the junctions j1 and j3 are forward-biased, the current is small.

Forward-Conducting State of the SCR:
As the value of (1 + 2 ) approaches unity through one of the
mechanisms ,many holes injected at j1 survive to be swept across j2 into p2.
This process helps feed the recombination in p2 and support the injection
of holes into n2. In a similar manner, the transistor action of electrons injected at j3
and collected at j2 supplies electrons for n1.
The current through the device can be much larger.
Reverse-Blocking State of the SCR:
The SCR in reverse-biased condition allows almost negligible
current to flow through it. This is shown in Fig. 8-4(c).
In the reverse-blocking state of the SCR, a small saturation
current flows from anode to cathode. Holes will flow from the gate into p2, the base of
the npn transistor, due to positive gate current.
The required gate current for turn-on is only a few milli-amperes,
therefore, the SCR can be turned on by a very small amount of power in the gate.
As shown in Fig. 8-5, if the gate
current is 0 mA, the critical voltage is
higher, i.e., the SCR requires more voltage
to switch to the conducting state.
But as the value of gate
current increases, the critical voltage
becomes lower, and the SCR switches
to the conducting state at a lower voltage.
At the higher gate current IG2,
the SCR switches faster than at the lower
gate current IG1,
because IG2 > IG1.
Semiconductor-controlled switch (SCS):
Few SCRs have two gate leads,
G2 attached to p2 and G1
attached to n1, as shown in Fig. 8-6.
This configuration is called the
semiconductor-controlled switch
(SCS).
The SCS, biased in the
forward-blocking state, can be
switched to the conducting state by
a negative pulse at the anode gate
n1 or by a positive current pulse
applied to the cathode gate at p2.
Simple Applications:
The SCR is the most important member of the thyristor family. The
SCR is a capable power device as it can handle thousands of amperes and volts.
Generally the SCR is used in many applications such as in high power electronics,
switches, power-control and conversion mode.
It is also used as surge protector.
Static Switch: The SCR is used as a switch for power-switching in various control
circuits.
Power Control: Since the SCR can be turned on externally, it can be used to regulate
the amount of power delivered to a load.
Surge Protection: In an SCR circuit, when the voltage rises beyond the threshold
value, the SCR is turned on to dissipate the charge or voltage quickly.
Power Conversion: The SCR is also used for high-power conversion and regulation.
This includes conversion of power source from ac to ac, ac to dc and dc to ac.
UNIJUNCTION TRANSISTOR (UJT):
The uni-junction transistor is a three-terminal single-junction device.
The switching voltage of the UJT can be easily varied.
The UJT is always operated as a switch in oscillators, timing circuits and
in SCR/TRIAC trigger circuits.
Constructional Features:
The UJT structure consists of a lightly doped n-type silicon bar provided
with ohmic contacts on either side.

The two end connections are called base B1 and base B2. A small heavily
doped p-region is alloyed into one side of the bar. This p-region is the UJT emitter (E)
that forms a pn junction with the bar.
Between base B1 and base B2, the resistance of the n-type bar called
inter-base resistance (RB ) and is in the order of a few kilo ohm.

This inter-base resistance can be broken up into two resistancesthe
resistance from B1 to the emitter is RB1 and the resistance from B2 to the emitter is
RB 2.
Since the emitter is closer to B2 the value of RB1is greater than RB2.
Total resistance is given by:
RB = RB1 + RB2
Equivalent circuit for UJT:
The V
BB
source is
generally fixed and provides a
constant voltage from B2 to B1.

The UJT is normally
operated with both B2 and E
positive biased relative to B1.

B1 is always the UJT
reference terminal and all voltages
are measured relative to B1 . V
EE
is
a variable voltage source.
UJT VI characteristic curves:
ON State of the UJT Circuit:
As V
EE
increases, the UJT stays in the OFF state until V
E
approaches
the peak point value V
P
. As V
E
approaches V
P
the pn junction becomes forward-
biased and begins to conduct in the opposite direction.
As a result I
E
becomes positive near the peak point P on the V
E
- I
E

curve. When V
E
exactly equals V
P
the emitter current equals IP .

At this point holes from the heavily doped emitter are injected into
the n-type bar, especially into the B1 region. The bar, which is lightly doped,
offers very little chance for these holes to recombine.

The lower half of the bar becomes replete with additional current
carriers (holes) and its resistance RB is drastically reduced; the decrease in BB1
causes Vx to drop.
This drop, in turn, causes the diode to become more forward-biased
and IE increases even further.
OFF State of the UJT Circuit:
When a voltage VBB is applied across the two base terminals B1 and
B2, the potential of point p with respect to B1 is given by:
VP =[VBB/ (RB1 +RB2)]*RB1=*RB1
is called the intrinsic stand off ratio with its typical value lying
between 0.5 and 0.8.

The V
EE
source is applied to the emitter which is the p-side. Thus, the
emitter diode will be reverse-biased as long as V
EE
is less than Vx. This is OFF
state and is shown on the VE - IE curve as being a very low current region.

In the OFF the UJT has a very high resistance between E and B1, and
IE is usually a negligible reverse leakage current. With no IE, the drop across RE
is zero and the emitter voltage equals the source voltage.
UJT Ratings:
Maximum peak emitter current : This represents the maximum allowable value of
a pulse of emitter current.

Maximum reverse emitter voltage :This is the maxi mum reverse-bias that the
emitter base junction B2 can tolerate before breakdown occurs.

Maximum inter base voltage :This limit is caused by the maxi mum power that the
n-type base bar can safely dissipate.

Emitter leakage current :This is the emitter current which flows when VE is less
than Vp and the UJT is in the OFF state.
Applications:
The UJT is very popular today mainly due to its high switching speed.
Applications of the UJT:
The UJT operation can be stated as follows:
(a) When the emitter diode is reverse-biased, only a very small emitter
current flows. Under this condition RB1 is at its normal high-value. This is the
OFF state of the UJT.
(b) When the emitter diode becomes forward-biased RB1 drops to a very
low value so that the total resistance between E and B1 becomes very low,
allowing emitter current to flow readily. This is the ON state.
A few select applications of the UJT are as follows:
(i) It is used to trigger SCRs and TRIACs
(ii) It is used in non-sinusoidal oscillators
(iii) It is used in phase control and timing circuits
(iv) It is used in saw tooth generators
(v) It is used in oscillator circuit design
POWER TRANSISTORS
Power transistor offers current rating of several hundred
Amperes and voltage rating of few Volts.
Power transistor do not have significant ability to block
reverse voltages.
Power transistor has low current gain, thus requires
continuous base drive during on-state conditions but doesnt
require forced commutations.
Power transistors are finding increasing popularity in low to
medium power applications.
Power transistor are widely used as static switches, where
application is limited to power electronic convertors
especially to dc voltages for inverters and choppers.
Power transistors can be used in high switching frequency,
permitting size reduction of electromagnetic components
and can provide current limit protection by base drive
circuit.

POWER TRANSISTORS CLASSIFICATION
1. Power BJT
2. Power MOSFET
3. IGBT (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor)

BJT - Bipolar Junction Transistor
BJT has three terminals, Collector (c),
Base (B) and Emitter (E).
Collector & Emitter terminals are
connected to the main power circuit,
while base terminal is connected to
control signal.
Transistor is a current driven device.
Base current determines whether it is
in on state or off state.
If base current is zero, transistor is
in off state, behaves as an open
switch.
If base current is sufficient to drive
transistor into saturation, then
transistor behaves as a closed
switch.
To keep the device in on state, there
should be a sufficient base current.
BJT Internal Current Components
Power Bipolar Junction Transistor
Power BJT is the first semiconductor device to allow full
control over its Turn on and Turn off operations (ideal fully
controlled power switch) .
Power transistors can switch on & off at much faster speed.
Switch on in less than 1s and turnoff in less than 2s.
Current gain of power transistors (IC/IB) can be as low as 10.
They fail under certain high voltage and high current
conditions.
They should be operated within its specified limits, known as
safe operating area (50A).
Power transistors can be used in applications where
frequency is as high as 100kHz.
Power BJT Construction
Power BJT have a 3-terminal but 4-layers vertically oriented
structure of alternating layers of n type and p type
semiconductor materials.
The vertical structure maximizes the cross sectional area
through which on state current flows.
This helps in decreasing the state resistance and power
losses in the device.
The n - layer is a special feature of power BJT and does not
exist in low power BJT devices. This special n- layer is called
collector drift region.
The thickness of drift region governs the breakdown voltage
of the device.
Doping densities and typical values of thickness of power BJT
are different from ordinary BJT.

Power BJT Cross sectional construction
Wide base width - low (<10) beta.
Lightly doped collector drift region - large breakdown voltage.
Internal Geometry of Power BJTs
Power BJT faces the same conflicting design
requirements (i.e. large off state blocking voltage and
large on state current density) as that of a power diode.
Vertical structure is preferred b/c it maximizes the cross
sectional area through which the on state current flows.
Thus, on state resistance and power loss is minimized.
In order to maintain a large current gain (and hence
reduce base drive current) the emitter doping density is
made several orders of magnitude higher than the base
region.
Thickness of the base region is also made as small as
possible.

Geometry of Power BJTs
In order to block large voltage during OFF state a lightly doped
collector drift region is introduced b/w the moderately doped
base region and the heavily doped collector region.
So width of the base region in a power transistor can not be
made as small as that in a signal level transistor.
This comparatively larger base width has adverse (not desired)
effect on the current gain () of a Power transistor which typically
varies within 5-20.
Practical Power transistors have their emitters and bases
interleaved as narrow fingers.
This is necessary to prevent current crowding and consequent
secondary break down.
In addition multiple emitter structure also reduces parasitic ohmic
resistance in the base current path.

Multiple narrow emitters - minimize emitter current crowding.
Multiple parallel base conductors - minimize parasitic resistance in series with the base.
Power BJT Special Adjustment
From the requirement of high amplification the base thickness
should be small. However a too small base thickness decreases
the breakdown voltage.
Therefore the base thickness is a comparison between these two
opposing requirements.
In general the base thickness in a power BJT is very high than that
in a low power BJT.
The thick base causes the current gain () to be rather small
(about 5 to 10).
To increase the current gain Darlington pair BJT is used.
Darlington-connected BJTs
Composite device has respectable beta
V-I Characteristics of Power Transistor
V-I Characteristics depict the relationship b/w IC & VCE for different
values of IB.
Power BJT have some special features, are as follows.
1. For substantial values of IC , there is maximum value of VCE which
device can sustain, it is denoted as Bvsus . If IB=0, maximum voltage
which can be sustained by the device increases to BVCEO (The
voltage- VCE when base is open circuited). The voltage BVCBO is the
breakdown voltage when the emitter is open circuited.
2. The primary breakdown is due to the avalanche breakdown of C-B
junction. In this region the current and the power dissipation can be
very high. Therefore this region should be avoided.
3. In second breakdown region , VCE decreases substantially and IC is
high. This region is due to thermal runaway. A cumulative process
occurs in this region and the device gets destroyed. In this
breakdown, power dissipation is not uniformly spread over the entire
volume of the transistor but is rather restricted to highly localized
areas. So the chances of the device getting destroyed are high.
4. A quasi saturation (between saturation and active region) region
exists. This region is due to the lightly doped drift collector region.
Power BJT V-I Characteristic
2nd breakdown - must be avoided.
Quasi-saturation - unique to power BJTs
BVCBO > BVCEO extended blocking voltage range.
Power BJT Turn-on Waveforms
Turn-off Waveforms with Controlled Base Current
Base current must make a controlled transition (controlled value of -diB/dt) from
positive to negative values in order to minimize turn-off times and switching losses.
Turn-off Waveforms with Uncontrolled Base Current
Excessive switching losses with collector current tailing
Darlington Turn-On-Off Characteristics
BJT Merits
Have high switching frequencies.
Turn-on losses are small.
Controlled turn-on & turn-off characteristics.
No commutation circuit required.
Low on-state or saturation voltage.
High off-state voltage capability
DEMERITS OF POWER BJT
Current controlled device, Unipolar voltage device with
high base losses.
Base current must be present during the closing period
Require reverse base current during turning off.
Low current gain in the saturation region
Parameters are temperature sensitive
Has the problem of charge storage.
Has the problem of second breakdown.
Cannot be used in parallel due to problems of negative
temperature coefficients.

Power BJT Applications
D.C motor inverters
PWM inverters
Switching mode power supplies

Power MOSFETs and Their Applications

INTRODUCTION
The high voltage power MOSFETs that are available
today are N-channel, enhancement-mode, double
diffused, Metal Oxide- Silicon, Field Effect Transistors.
They perform the same function as NPN, bipolar
junction transistors except the former are voltage
controlled in contrast to the current controlled bi-polar
devices.
Today MOSFETs owe their ever-increasing popularity to
their high input impedance and to the fact that being a
majority carrier device, they do not suffer from
minority carrier storage time effects, thermal runaway,
or second breakdown.

Operation
With no electrical bias applied to the gate G, no current can flow in
either direction underneath the gate because there will always be a
blocking PN junction.
When the gate is forward biased with respect to the source S, as
shown in
Figure2, the free hole carriers in the p-epitaxial layer are repelled
away from the gate area creating a channel, which allows electrons
to flow from the source to the drain.
Note that since the holes have been repelled from the gate channel,
the electrons are the ``majority carriers'' by default.
This mode of operation is called ``enhancement'' but it is easier to
think of enhancement mode of operation as the device being
``normally off'', i.e., the switch blocks current until it receives a
signal to turn on.
The opposite is depletion mode, which is a normally ``on'' device.
Advantages
The advantages of the lateral MOSFET are:

1. Low gate signal power requirement. No gate current
can flow into the gate after the small gate oxide
capacitance has been charged.

2. Fast switching speeds because electrons can start to
flow from drain to source as soon as the channel opens.
The channel depth is proportional to the gate voltage
and pinches closed as soon as the gate voltage is
removed, so there is no storage time effect as occurs in
bipolar transistors.
Disadvantages
1. High resistance channels. In normal operation, the
source is electrically connected to the substrate. With
no gate bias, the depletion region extends out from the
N+ drain in a pseudo-hemispherical shape. The
channel length L cannot be made shorter than the
minimum depletion width required to support the
rated voltage of the device.
2. Channel resistance may be decreased by creating
wider channels but this is costly since it uses up
valuable silicon real estate. It also slows down the
switching speed of the device by increasing its gate
capacitance.
A major advantage of the power MOSFET is its very fast
switching speeds.
The drain current is strictly proportional to gate voltage
so that the theoretically perfect device could switch in
50 ps - 200 ps, the time it takes the carriers to flow
from source to drain.
Since the MOSFET is a majority carrier device, a second
reason why it can outperform the bipolar junction
transistor is that its turn-off is not delayed by minority
carrier storage time in the base.
A MOSFET begins to turn off as soon as its gate voltage
drops down to its threshold voltage.
ECD 442 Power Electronics 102
Power MOSFETs - types
Two Types
Depletion Type
Channel region is already diffused between the Drain
and Source
Deplete, or pinch-off the Channel
Enhancement Type
No channel region exists between the Drain and Source
Invert the region between the Drain and Source to
induce a channel

Depletion MOSFET
N-Channel Depletion MOSFET
Normally Reverse-Bias the Gate-Source Junction
Enhancement MOSFET
N-Channel Enhancement MOSFET
The Gate-Source Junction will be Forward-Biased
The bias voltage must be greater than a threshold voltage
A Channel region is induced between the Drain and Source
Drain Characteristics
Steady-State Characteristics
Switching Characteristics
Turn-on Delay, t
d(on)
= time to charge the input capacitance to
V
T

Rise time, t
r
= Charging time to charge the input capacitance to
the full gate voltage, V
GSP
in order to drive the transistor into
the linear region of operation
Turn-off delay time, t
d(off)
= time for the input capacitance to
discharge from overdrive voltage V
1
to pinch-off.
V
GS
must decrease significantly for V
DS
to rise.
Fall time, t
f
= time for the input capacitance to discharge from
pinch-off to the threshold voltage.
INSULATED-GATE BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR
(IGBT):
The insulated-gate bipolar transistor is a recent model of a power-
switching device that combines the advantages of a power BJT and a power
MOSFET.
Both power MOSFET and IGBT are the continuously controllable
voltage-controlled switch.
Constructional Features:
The p+ region acts as a substrate which forms the anode region, i.e., the
collector region of the IGBT. Then there is a buffer layer of n region and a
bipolar-base drift region.
The p-region contains two n regions and acts as a MOSFET source.
An inversion layer can be formed by applying proper gate voltage.
The cathode, i.e., the IGBT emitter is formed on the n source
region.
INSULATED-GATE BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR (IGBT):
CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS
Physical Operation:
The principle behind the operation of an
IGBT is similar to that of a power MOSFET.
The IGBT operates in two
modes:
(i) The blocking or non-conducting mode
(ii) The ON or conducting mode.

The circuit symbol for the IGBT
It is similar to the symbol for an npn
bipolar-junction power transistor with the
insulated-gate terminal replacing the base.
REAL-LIFE APPLICATIONS:
The IGBT is mostly used in high-speed switching devices.
They have switching speeds greater than those of bipolar power
transistors.

The turn-on time is nearly the same as in the case of a
power MOSFET, but the turn-off time is longer.

Thus, the maximum converter switching frequency of the
IGBT is intermediate between that of a bipolar power transistor
and a power MOSFET.
The IGBT is mostly used in high-speed switching Devices.

SEMICONDUCTORS SYMBOLS

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