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Chapter 4
Motivation and Values
By Michael R. Solomon
Consumer Behavior
Buying, Having, and Being
Sixth Edition
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What are Paulas motivations for being a
vegetarian?
How is vegetarianism being promoted and
who is promoting it?
How is the beef industry responding to this
movement toward a meatless diet?
How are values influencing individuals
choices in consumption?

Opening Vignette: Paula
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The Motivation Process
Motivation:
The processes that lead people to behave as they
do. It occurs when a need arises that a consumer
wishes to satisfy.
Utilitarian need: Provides a functional or practical
benefit
Hedonic need: An experiential need involving
emotional responses or fantasies
Goal:
The end state that is desired by the consumer.
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The Motivation Process
Drive:
The degree of arousal present due to a discrepancy between
the consumers present state and some ideal state
Want:
A manifestation of a need created by personal and cultural
factors.
Motivation can be described in terms of:
Strength: The pull it exerts on the consumer
Direction: The particular way the consumer attempts to
reduce motivational tension
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Ads Reinforce Desired States
This ad for exercise
shows men a desired
state (as dictated by
contemporary Western
culture), and suggests
a solution (purchase of
equipment) to attain it.
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Motivational Strength
Biological vs. Learned Needs:
Instinct: Innate patterns of behavior universal in a species
Tautology: Circular explanation (e.g. instinct is inferred
from the behavior it is supposed to explain)
Drive Theory:
Biological needs produce unpleasant states of arousal. We
are motivated to reduce tension caused by this arousal.
Homeostasis: A balanced state of arousal
Expectancy Theory:
Behavior is pulled by expectations of achieving desirable
outcomes positive incentives rather than pushed from
within
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Motivational Direction
Needs Versus Wants:
Want: The particular form of consumption used to satisfy a
need.
Types of Needs
Biogenic needs: Needs necessary to maintain life
Psychogenic needs: Culture-related needs (e.g. need for
status, power, affiliation, etc.)
Utilitarian needs: Implies that consumers will emphasize
the objective, tangible aspects of products
Hedonic needs: Subjective and experiential needs (e.g.
excitement, self-confidence, fantasy, etc.)
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Instant Gratification of Needs
We expect todays technical products to satisfy
our needs instantly.
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Motivational Conflicts
Approach-Approach Conflict:
A person must choose between two desirable alternatives.
Theory of Cognitive Dissonance: A state of tension occurs
when beliefs or behaviors conflict with one another.
Cognitive Dissonance Reduction: Process by which
people are motivated to reduce tension between
beliefs or behaviors.
Approach-Avoidance Conflict:
Exists when consumers desire a goal but wish to avoid it at
the same time.
Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict:
Consumers face a choice between two undesirable
alternatives.
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Three Types of Motivational Conflicts
Figure 4.1
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Solutions to Approach-Avoidance Conflict
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Do sporting events, such
as a college football
game, satisfy utilitarian or
hedonic needs? Which
specific needs do they
address?
Give some other
examples of utilitarian and
hedonic needs.
Discussion Question
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Negative Consequences
The Partnership for a
Drug-Free America
points out the negative
consequences of drug
addiction for those who
are tempted to start.
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Classifying Consumer Needs
Henry Murray need dimensions:
Autonomy: Being independent
Defendance: Defending the self against criticism
Play: Engaging in pleasurable activities
Thematic Apperception Technique (TAT):
(1) What is happening?
(2) What led up to this situation?
(3) What is being thought?
(4) What will happen?
People freely project their subconscious needs onto
the stimulus
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Classifying Consumer Needs (cont.)
Specific Needs and Buying Behavior:
Need for achievement: To attain personal accomplishment
Need for affiliation: To be in the company of others
Need for power: To control ones environment
Need for uniqueness: To assert ones individual identity
Maslows Hierarchy of Needs:
A hierarchy of biogenic and psychogenic needs that
specifies certain levels of motives.
Paradise: Satisfying Needs?
Distinct differences regarding the conceptualization of
paradise between American and Dutch college students
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Maslows Hierarchy of Needs
Figure 4.2
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Dutch Conception of Paradise
A Dutch respondents collage emphasizes this persons
conception of paradise as a place where there is
interpersonal harmony and concern for the environment.
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Criticisms of Maslows Hierarchy
The application is too simplistic:
It is possible for the same product or activity to satisfy
every need.
It is too culture-bound:
The assumptions of the hierarchy may be restricted to
Western culture
It emphasizes individual needs over group
needs
Individuals in some cultures place more value on the
welfare of the group (belongingness needs) than the needs
of the individual (esteem needs)
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Consumer Involvement
Involvement:
A persons perceived relevance of the object based
on his/her inherent needs, values, and interests.
Object: A product or brand
Levels of Involvement: Inertia to Passion
Type of information processing depends on the
consumers level of involvement
Simple processing: Only the basic features of the
message are considered
Elaboration: Incoming information is linked to
preexisting knowledge
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Conceptualizing Involvement
Figure 4.3
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Increasing Involvement through Ads
The Swiss Potato
Board is trying to
increase involvement
with its product. The
ad reads, Recipes
against boredom.
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Consumer Involvement (cont.)
Involvement as a Continuum:
Ranges from disinterest to obsession
Inertia (Low involvement consumption):
Consumer lacks the motivation to consider alternatives
Flow State (High involvement consumption):
Consumer is truly involved with the product, ad or web site
Cult Products:
Command fierce consumer loyalty and perhaps worship by
consumers who are highly involved in the product

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Example of a Cult Product
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The Many Faces of Involvement
Product Involvement:
Related to a consumers level of interest in a
particular product
Message-Response Involvement:
(a.k.a. advertising involvement) Refers to a
consumers interest in processing marketing
communications
Purchase Situation Involvement:
Refers to the differences that may occur when
buying the same product for different contexts
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Emotions versus Cognitions
Many marketing
messages, such as
this ad for a cosmetic
company in Taiwan,
focus on emotions
rather than cognitions.
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Customizing for Product Involvement
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Measuring Involvement
Teasing out the Dimensions of Involvement:
Involvement Profile:
Personal interest in a product category
Risk importance
Probability of making a bad purchase
Pleasure value of the product category
How closely the product is related to the self
Zaichkowskys Personal Involvement Inventory Scale
Segmenting by Involvement Levels:
Involvement is a useful basis for market segmentation
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High Involvement
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Strategies to Increase Involvement
Appeal to hedonic needs
e.g. using sensory appeals to generate attention
Use novel stimuli
e.g. unusual cinematography, sudden silences, etc.
Use prominent stimuli
e.g. larger ads, more color
Include celebrity endorsers
Build a bond with consumers
Maintain an ongoing relationship with consumers
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Values
Value:
A belief that some condition is preferable to its opposite (e.g.
freedom is better than slavery)
Core Values:
General set of values that uniquely define a culture
Value system: A cultures unique set of rankings of the
relative importance of universal values.
Enculturation:
Process of learning the value systems of ones own
culture
Acculturation:
Process of learning the value system of another culture
Cultural beliefs are taught by socialization agents (i.e.,
parents, friends, and teachers)
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Core Values
Cleanliness is a core
value in many cultures.
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Application of Values
to Consumer Behavior
Useful distinctions in values for
consumer behavior research
Cultural Values (e.g. security or happiness)
Consumption-Specific Values (e.g. convenient
shopping or prompt service)
Product-Specific Values (e.g. ease-of-use or
durability)
Virtually all consumer research is
ultimately related to identification and
measurement of values.

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Emotions versus Cognitions
The positive value we place on the activities of large
corporations is changing among some consumers who
prefer to go anticorporate. This ad for a coffee shop in
Boulder, Colorado reflects that sentiment.
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Measuring Cultural Values
The Rokeach Value Survey
Terminal Values: Desired end states
Instrumental Values: Actions needed to achieve
terminal values
The List of Values (LOV) Scale
Developed to isolate values with more direct
marketing applications
Identifies nine (9) consumer segments based on the
values they endorse
Relates each value to differences in consumption

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The Means-End Chain Model
Laddering:
A technique that uncovers consumers associations between
attributes and consequences
Hierarchical value maps:
Show how product attributes are linked to desired end states
Means-End Conceptualization of the
Components of Advertising Strategy
(MECCAS):
Message Elements
Consumer Benefits
Executional Framework
Leverage Point
Driving Force
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Syndicated Surveys
Large-scale commercial surveys
Voluntary simplifiers:
Believe that once basic needs are sated, additional
income does not add to happiness.
Examples:
VALS 2
GlobalScan
New Wave
Lifestyles Study


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Materialism
Materialism:
The importance people attach to worldly possessions
Tends to emphasize the well-being of the individual
versus the group
People with highly material values tend to be less
happy
America is a highly materialistic society
There are a number of anti-materialism movements

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Values of Materialists
Materialists value visible symbols of success such as
expensive watches.
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Materialists are more
likely to consume for
status. Can you think of
products and brands that
convey status?
There is a movement
away from materialism in
our culture. Can you
think of products, ads, or
brands that are anti-
materialistic?
Discussion Question
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Consumer Behavior in
the Aftermath of 9/11
Following 9/11, ads
addressed peoples
fears in various ways.
This ad was created as
part of the Advertising
Community Together
initiative.