ME 63

Thermodynamics
Department of
Mechanical Engineering
Some Concepts and Definitions
Introduction
THERMODYNAMICS
the science of energy and entropy

the science that deals with heat and work and
the properties of substances that bear a
relation to heat and work

stems from the Greek word therme (heat) and
dynamis (power)
Introduction
THERMODYNAMICS
basis is experimental observation and
formalized into basic laws which are the First,
Second, Third, and Zeroth Laws of
Thermodynamics
the word thermodynamics was first used in a
publication by Lord Kelvin in 1849
The first textbook was written in 1859 by
William Rankine, at the University of Glasgow
Applications of
Thermodynamics
The Thermodynamic System
A system is defined as a quantity of matter or
a region in space chosen for study. The mass
or region outside the system is called the
surroundings. The real or imaginary surface
that separates the system from its
surroundings is called the boundary.
The extent of the system in space at any given
time is defined by the system boundary
The Thermodynamic System
The envelope that represents the system
boundary which encloses the thermodynamic
system is also known as the system control
surface
The boundary can be fixed or movable
The Thermodynamic System
Types of System
Closed System
Open System
Isolated System
Closed System
Also known as control mass (amount of matter
inside control remains constant with time)
consists of a fixed amount of mass, and no mass
can cross its boundary. That is, no mass can
enter or leave a closed system, but energy, in
the form of heat or work, can cross the
boundary
Closed System
Open System
Is a properly selected region in space. It usually
encloses a device that involves mass flow such
as a compressor, turbine, or nozzle.
Both mass and energy (in the form of work
and/or heat) can cross the boundary.
Open System
Open System
Open System
Isolated System
A system that is not influenced in any way by
the surroundings or environment no mass and
energy flow across the system boundary
Microscopic vs. Macroscopic
Microscopic Point of View
System behavior is described by describing the
behavior of each molecule which comprise the
system
Governing equations are written for each molecule,
e.g., equations for position, velocity, etc.
Microscopic vs. Macroscopic
Macroscopic Point of View
The gross/average effects or time-averaged
influence of many molecules is used to describe
system behavior
Uses measurable parameters, e.g., pressure,
temperature, etc.
System volume should be very large compared with
molecular dimensions (system should contain many
molecules)
System is treated as continuous, disregarding the
action of individual molecules
Properties and State of a Substance
Phase
A quantity of matter that is homogenous
throughout; solid, liquid, gas
When more than one phase is present, each phase
is separated by phase boundaries
State of a Substance
State
- Identified or described by certain observable,
macroscopic properties
Property of a Substance
Any quantity that depends only on the state of
the system
Independent of the path by which the state is
arrived at.
*Given a state, each property has only one definite
value
*Please remember that TWO INDEPENDENT
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES determine a
state
Property of a Substance
Some familiar properties are pressure P,
temperature T, volume V, and mass m. The list
can be extended to include less familiar ones
such as viscosity, thermal conductivity, modulus
of elasticity, thermal expansion coefficient,
electric resistivity, and even velocity and
elevation.
A property of a system has significance for the
entire system only when the system is in
equilibrium.
Property of a Substance
2 General Class of Properties
Intensive Properties
independent of mass
Examples: Pressure, Temperature
Extensive Properties
dependent of mass
Examples: Mass, Weight, Specific Volume
Thermodynamic Equilibrium
A system is in equilibrium when it is in thermal,
mechanical, and chemical equilibrium
Thermal equilibrium : uniform temperature
throughout the system.
Mechanical equilibrium : pressure at any point in
the system does not vary with time when system is
isolated
Chemical equilibrium : no tendency to change
composition
A Thermodynamic Equilibrium a system condition that
precludes all possible changes of state all equilibrium
conditions are satisfied
Processes and Cycles
Occurs when a change in property occurs
Any change that a system undergoes from one
equilibrium state to another is called a process, and
the series of states through which a system passes
during a process is called the path of the process
Processes
Quasi-Equilibrium Process (ideal process)
When a process proceeds in such a manner that
the system remains infinitesimally close to an
equilibrium state at all times.
Processes
Non-Quasi-Equilibrium Process
Processes
The prefix iso- is often used to designate a
process which a particular property remains
constant.
Isothermal - constant temperature
Isobaric (Isopiestic) - constant pressure
Isochoric (Isometric) - constant volume
Cycle
a series of processes, one after the other, such
that the initial and final states are the same
initial and final system compositions are
similar.
Units for Mass, Length, Time, and
Force
SI Units English Units
Time second (s) second (s)
Length meter (m) foot (ft)
Mass kilogram (kg) pound mass (lbm)
Force Newton (N) pound force (lbf)
SI and English Units
Mass vs Weight
The mass of a body remains the
same regardless of its location in
the universe. Its weight, however,
changes with a change in
gravitational acceleration
Unit Prefixes
Density and Specific Volume
Density is mass per unit volume



Specific Volume is the reciprocal of density
Specific Gravity and Specific Weight
Specific gravity, or relative density, and is defined as the ratio
of the density of a substance to the density of some standard
substance at a specified temperature.


Substances with SG of less than 1 are lighter than water, thus
they would float on water
The weight of a unit volume is called specific weight
Pressure
Of a liquid or gas is defined as the normal component of force per
unit area


where
A = a differential area of a system
A = smallest area over which the fluid can be considered as a
continuum
Fn = component of force normal to A
Typical units,
SI: 1 Pascal (Pa) = 1 Newton / m2 (N/m2)
English: pound-force / ft2 (lbf/ft2), pound-force / in2 (lbf/in2)
or pounds per square inch (psi)
Others: 1 bar = 105 Pa = 0.1 MPa
atm = 101,325 Pa = 14.696 lbf/in2
Pressure
Fluid pressure in relation to a movable boundary


Under equilibrium conditions,
pressure P exerted by the gas on all
its boundaries is the same
With no heat transfer, the pressure is
fixed by the external force Fext
acting on the piston ; also, Fext =
Pressure x Piston Area (from FBD of
piston)
Heating/cooling of the gas tends to
increase/decrease pressure and
move piston to the right/left such
that Pressure x Piston Area = Fext is
satisfied.
Pressure
Pressure is typically measured or indicated relative to
either of two references which are
Atmospheric Pressure typically sea level pressure
at standard conditions; measured by a barometer
Gauge pressure - indicates how much actual pressure is
above atmospheric pressure; measured by a pressure
gauge
Vacuum pressure - indicates how much actual pressure
is below atmospheric pressure; measured by a vacuum
gauge
Absolute Zero Pressure zero pressure or perfect
vacuum; measured by an absolute pressure gauge
or calculated from gauge/vacuum pressure
Pressure
Pressure Measurement

Using a Column of Fluid (Manometer)








where
= density of measuring fluid inside manometer
h = difference in level of measuring fluid inside manometer
g = gravitational constant = 9.80665 m/s2 = 32.174 ft/s2
Pressure Measurement Example
A manometer is used to measure the pressure in a
tank. The fluid used has a specific gravity of 0.85, and
the manometer column height is 55 cm, as shown in
the figure. If the local atmospheric pressure is 96 kPa,
determine the absolute pressure within the tank.
Pressure Measurement

Using Dial Gauges
Consider the following






a. If Pi > Po ,
Pi = Po + Pg If Po = Patm , Pi, abs = Patm + Pg
b. If Pi < Po ,
Pi = Po - Pvac If Po = Patm , Pi, abs = Patm - Pvac
Tube
side
Dial side
P
d
= pressure
reading
= P
g
or P
vac

P
o
= pressure outside Compartment
= ambient pressure
P
i
= pressure
inside
compartment
Equality of Temperature
Two bodies have equality of temperature if, when
they are in thermal equilibrium, no change in any
observable property occurs.
The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
When two bodies have equality of temperature with a
third body, they in turn have equality of temperature
with each other.

"If A is in thermal equilibrium with B and if B is in
thermal equilibrium with C, then A is in thermal
equilibrium with C."