Course: Strength of Materials (CAB 2042)

Credit Value: 2
FACILITATOR: DR. TUSHAR KANTI SEN
Chemical Engineering Programme
Building 04, Level 03-Room-10, Tel. extn-7578
Course Description: Statics of particles, stress and strain, Centroid and
Centre of Gravity, Bending moment and shear force, Structural Analysis on
Trusses and machine, Transverse loading, Combined loading, Torsion of
circular shafts, Mohrs Circle.
COURSE OBJECTIVES: To aquire concept of equilibrium, analyse rigid
bodies, extend the students study of strength of materials beyond statics
to the concepts of stress and strain, mechanical properties of materials,
bending moment and shear force, Continued work on problem-solving
skills,Enrichment in knowledge during selection of structure and machines.

Course: Strength of Materials (CAB 2042)
Course outline, Outcomes and Assessment: As per
hard copy circulation among students based on OBE
TEXTBOOK: (1) Strength of Materials, by B. K. Sarkar,
Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Ltd, New Delhi,
2003.
(2) Engineering Mechanics STATICS, by R. C.
Hibbeler, Prentice Hall, Singapore, London, New York,
2004.
(3) Strength of Materials, by R. K. Rajput, S. Chand &
Company Ltd, New Delhi, 2002.
(4) Mechanics of Materials, by F.P. Beer, E. R.
Johnston and J. T. DeWolf,McGraw-Hill, New York,
2002.

INTRODUCTION
In day-to-day work, an engineer comes across certain
materials, i.e. steel girders, angle irons, circular bars,
cement etc., which are used in his project work. While
selecting a suitable material, for his project, an engineer is
always interested to know its strength. The strength of a
material may be defined as ability, to resist its failure and
behaviour, under the action of external force. A detailed
study of forces and their effects, along with some suitable
protective measures for the safe working conditions, is
known as Strength of materials

Basic Quantities:
- Length
- Time
- Mass
- Force
All quantities can be expressed in four systems of units I.e. C.G.S.,
F.P.S., M.K.S and S.I. Units.
Equilibrium
At rest or move with constant velocity
Introduction to Statics
Idealizations:

Particle - has a mass but with negligible size
Rigid Body - does not deform under load
Concentrated Force - load acting on a point of body
Newtons Three Laws of Motion:
First Law - at rest; constant velocity; balanced force
Second Law - unbalanced force F; acceleration a
F = ma
Third Law - mutual forces of action and reaction:
equal, opposite, and collinear
Exponential form Prefix SI symbol

10
9
giga G
10
6
mega M
10
3
kilo k
10
-3
milli m
10
-6
micro
10
-9
nano n

Prefixes:
Dimensional Homogeneity:
All terms in an equation must be
expressed in the same units

Basic Trigonometric Review
For Right Triangles:
1. Pythagorean Law: C
2
= A
2
+
B
2


2. Sine = opposite
side/hypotenuse = B/C
3. Cosine = adjacent
side/hypotenuse = A/C

Tangent = opposite
side/adjacent side = B/A
Basic Trigonometric Review
For Non-Right
Triangles:
1. Law of Cosines:
C
2
= A
2
+ B
2
- 2AB cos
c
2. Law of Sines:
(A/sin a) = (B/sin b)
= (C/sin c)
Where A,B,C are length
of the sides, and a, b, c
are the corresponding
angles opposite the
sides.

Some General Trigonometric Identities
Examples Problems on Trigonometry
Example 1. A 40 ft long
ladder leaning against
a wall makes an angle
of 60 with the
ground. Determine
the vertical height to
which the ladder will
reach.4.6

Ans: 34.64

Examples Problems on Trigonometry
Example 2: In the roof truss
shown in the Fig, the bottom
chord members AD and DC
have lengths of 18 ft. and 36 ft
respectively. The height BD is
14 ft. Determine the lengths of
the top chords AB and BC and
find the angles at A and C
Ans: AB = 22.8 ft; BC = 38.6
ft; A = 37.9
0
, C = 21.25
0
.
Basic Vector Review
1. Definitions:
Scalar: Any quantity possessing magnitude (size) only, such as
mass, volume, temperature Vector: Any quantity possessing both
magnitude and direction, such as force, velocity, momentum
2.Vector Addition:
Vector addition may be done several ways including,
Graphical Method, Trigonometric Method, and
Component Method. We will be reviewing only the
Component Method, as that is the method which will be used
in the course. Other methods are detailed in your textbook.
3.Vector Addition -Component Method:(2-
dimensional)

The component method will follow the procedure
shown below


















Choose an origin, sketch a coordinate system,
and draw the vectors to be added (or
summed).

Break (resolve) each vector into it's "x" and
"y" components, using the following
relationships:
A
x
= A cosine , and, A
y
= A sine , where A is
the vector, and is the vector's angle.

Sum all the x-components and all the y-
components obtaining a net resultant R
x
, and
R
y
vectors.

R
x
= A
x
+ B
x
+ C
x
+ . . ., &, R
y
= A
y
+ B
y
+ C
y
+ .
. . 4. Recombine Rx and Ry to obtain the final
resultant vector (magnitude and direction)
using



2 2
R
y
R R R andTangent
x y
R
x
u = + =
Example-Vector Addition
Three ropes are tied to a small
metal ring. At the end of each
rope three rope three students
are pulling, each trying to move
the ring in their direction. If we
look down from above the
students, the forces and
directions they are applying the
forces are as follows; (See
diagram to the right).
Find the net (resultant) force
(magnitude and direction) on
the ring due to the three applied
forces.
Solution
Choose origin, sketch
coordinate system and
vectors (done above)

Resolve vectors into x &
y components (See
Diagram)

A
x
= 30 lb cos 37
o
= + 24.0
lbs ; A
y
= 30 lb sin 37
o
= +
18.1 lb
B
x
= 50 lb cos135
o
= - 35.4
lbs ; B
y
= 50 lb sin135
o
= +
35.4 lb
C
x
= 80 lb cos240
o
= - 40.0
lbs ; C
y
= 80 lb sin240
o
= -
69.3 lb

Solution (Contd)
Sum x & y components to
find resultant R
x
and R
y

forces.
R
x
= 24.0 lbs - 35.4 lbs -
40.0 lbs = -51.4 lbs
R
y
=18.1 lbs + 35.4 lbs -
69.3 lbs = -15.8 lbs
'Recombine' (add) Rx and
Ry to determine final
resultant vector.
Thus the resultant force on
the ring is 53.8 pounds
acting at an angle of 197.1
degrees.

FORCE
Resultant Force: If a number of forces P, Q, R-------etc., are acting
simultaneously on a particle, then a single force, which will produce
the same effect as that of all the given forces, is known as a resultant
force. The forces P, Q, Retc. are called component forces.

Composition of Forces: It means the process of finding out the
resultant force of the given component forces. A resulting force may
be found out analytically, graphically or by the following laws:
(a) Parallelogram Law of Forces: If two forces acting simultaneously on a
particle be represented, in magnitude and direction, by the two adjacent sides
of a parallelogram, their resultant may be represented, in magnitude and
direction, by the diagonal of the parallelogram passing through the point of
their interaction.

(b) Triangle Law of Forces: If two forces acting simultaneously on a particle
be represented, in magnitude and direction, by the two sides of a triangle
taken in order, their resultant may be represented, in magnitude and
direction, by the third side of the triangle taken in opposite order.
FORCE
Resultant Force: If a number of forces P, Q, R-------etc., are acting
simultaneously on a particle, then a single force, which will produce
the same effect as that of all the given forces, is known as a resultant
force. The forces P, Q, Retc. are called component forces.

Composition of Forces: It means the process of finding out the
resultant force of the given component forces. A resulting force may
be found out analytically, graphically or by the following laws:
(a) Parallelogram Law of Forces: If two forces acting
simultaneously on a particle be represented, in magnitude and
direction, by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram, their resultant
may be represented, in magnitude and direction, by the diagonal of the
parallelogram passing through the point of their interaction.

FORCE
(a) Triangle Law of Forces: If two forces acting simultaneously
on a particle be represented, in magnitude and direction, by the two
sides of a triangle taken in order, their resultant may be
represented, in magnitude and direction, by the third side of the
triangle taken in opposite order.

(c) Polygon Law of Forces: If a number of forces acting
simultaneously on a particle be represented, in magnitude and
direction, by the sides of a polygon taken in order, their resultant
may be represented, in magnitude and direction, by the closing side
of the polygon taken in opposite order.

(d) Moment of a Force: It is the turning effect, produced by the force,
on a body on which it acts. It is mathematically equal to the product
of the force and the perpendicular distance between the line of
action of the force and the point about which the moment is
required.

How Forces are Represented

There are two ways in which forces can
be represented in written form:
Scalar Notation (Figure 1.2.1)
Vector Notation (Figure 1.2.2)
The method used depends on the type of
problem being solved and the
easiest approach to finding a
solution.
Scalar notation is useful when
describing a force as a set of
orthogonal force components. For
example: Fx = 15N, Fy =
20N, Fz = 10N

How Forces are Represented

Vector notation is useful when
vector mathematics are to be
applied to a problem, such as
addition or
multiplication. Vector
notation is somewhat simple
in form:
F = 15i + 20j + 10k N.
The N term represents the unit of
force, Newtons in this
instance.




Multiple forces can be applied at a point.
These forces are known as
concurrent forces and can be added
together to form a resultant
force. If the component forces are
orthogonal, then the magnitude of
the resultant force can be
determined by taking the Square
Root of the Sum of the Squares
(SRSS). The SRSS method is an
extension of the Pythagorean
Theorem to three
dimensions. Figure 1.3.1
illustrates the calculation of a
vector magnitude using the SRSS
method.

Addition of Forces

What is a Distributed Force

A distributed force can be thought of as a force
spread out over a specific area. Suppose
we had a 3'x3'x3' cube of concrete (very
heavy!). We might say that the cube
exerts a force of: (3ft)^3 * 145lbs/ft^3 =
3,220 lbs downward
We could also consider the distributed force
beneath the cube:
3,220 lbs/(3ft x 3ft) = 356 lbs/ft^2
Figure 3.1.1 illustrates the two ways we might
consider the concrete weight.
Can you see the relationship between the
concentrated force and the distributed
force? The concentrated force represents
a single force vector applied at the
centroid of the object. The centroid here
means the center of gravity.
Distributed forces come in many shapes and
sizes. Actually, in nature there are more
distributed forces than there are
concentrated forces. Even the load
beneath your shoes as you walk is
distributed over the sole and heel. Most
realistic problems will involve distributed
forces.



Forces in Plane
Case 1:
Given two forces determine MAGNITUDE and
DIRECTION of resultant force F
R

Tool #1: Parallelogram:
q
a
b
F
R

q
F
R
a
b
=
Tool #2: Law of Cosines (To find the magnitude or
direction):



(for a, b, and = are known)


Tool #3: Law of Sines (To find the direction or magnitude):



(where q is unknown)

| cos 2
2 2
ab b a F
R
+ =
| u sin sin
R
F a
=
Case 2:
Given one force resolve the force into its COMPONENTS
Tool: Vector Triangle








F
x
= F cos= F
y
= F sin=

See examples 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4

F
y


F
x


=

x

y

F

=

F

F
x


F
y


Summary on Force Vectors
Goals:
To show how to add forces and resolve them into components
To express force and position in Cartesian vector form
To explain how to determine a vectors magnitude and direction
Scalars and Vectors:
A scalar is a real number e.g., mass, time, volume and length
A vector has both magnitude and direction e.g. force, velocity and
acceleration
Vector Operations
Multipication of a vector by a scalar: The product of a vector A and
a scalar a is a vector aA with magnitude mod aA = mod a mod A.
Summary on Force Vectors
VECTOR ADDITION:
Two vectors A and B can be
added to form a resultant vector
R = A + B by using the
parallelogram law. If the two
vectors are collinear (both
vectors have the same line of
action), the resultant is formed
by an algebraic or scalar
addition.
A
B
(a)
B
A
R=A+B
(b) Parallelogram law
A
B
R = A +B
(c) Triangle construction
R = B + A
B
A
(d) Triangle construction
A B
R
Addition of collinear vector
Summary on Force Vectors
RESOLUTION OF A VECTOR:
A Vector may be resolved
into components having
known lines of action by
using the parallelogram
law.
R
a
b
(a) Extend parallel lines from the head of R to
form components
R
A
B
b
a
Components
Resultant
(b)
Summary on Force Vectors
VECTOR ADDITION OF
FORCES
Forces are added together or
resolved into components using the
rules of vector algebra
Two common problems in statics
involve either finding the resultant
force given its components or
resolving a known force into
components
Often the magnitude of a resultant
force can be determined from law
of cosines, while its direction is
determined from the law of sines.
b
a
c
A
B
C
2 2
:
sin :
2
Sinelaw
A B C
Sina Sinb Sinc
Co elaw
C SQRT A B ABCosc
= =
= +
Concept of Equilibrium

Any kind of object or component must
have a net balance of zero forces
and moments applied to it in order
to remain at rest. This type of
balance is called static equilibrium,
where nothing is moving. Figure
4.1.1 illustrates a weight, pully and
block situatuion where all of the
forces, including friction beneath the
block, sum to zero.
Upon inspection of the forces in Figure
4.1.1, you will see that they sum to
zero. Hence, there is equilibrium
and no movement.

Concept of Equilibrium

Determining the forces on a body is an
important part of mechanics. It helps
us answer questions such as: Will an
object move? How much force or
stress is in a part? Will something
break? Do you think the stationary
block in Figure 4.1.1 would move if
the hanging mass was 50kg instead
of 25kg? What if the cable were to
break?
There are two vital items which must be
understood in order to evaluate
forces. These two items are
boundary conditions and the free
body diagram.

Equilibrium of a Rigid Body
Two equations of equilibrium:
0
0
=
=

o
M
F
The Free Body Diagram (FBD) is a graphical tool for evaluating forces
and equilibrium. A FBD is a drawing of an analysis problem
showing the components, relevant dimensions, and every applied
force and moment present. The rules of equilibrium apply to the
FBD. All of the forces in the drawing will sum to zero in the X, Y,
and Z directions. Also, any set of moments at any location on the
FBD will also sum to zero. It is necessary to have the dimensions
drawn in order to figure out moments on the FBD.

Free-Body Diagram:
Equilibrium of a Rigid Body
Two equations of equilibrium:
0
0
=
=

o
M
F
A sketch of the outlined shape of the body, free from its
surroundings
Show all the known/unknown forces and couple
moments acting on the body due to
(1) Applied loading only external forces
(2) Reactions at the supports/at the points of contact
with other bodies
(3) Weight of the body at the center of gravity
Free-Body Diagram:
Equilibrium in Two-Dimensions:
1. If a support prevents translation of body in a given
direction, then a force is developed in that direction
2. If a support prevents rotation, then a couple moment is
exerted on the body

0 =
x
F 0 =
y
F 0 =
o
M
General Rules for Support Reactions:
Indicate the dimensions of the body
Then apply equations of equilibrium
See examples 5.1, 5.2,5.3,5.4,5.5 and so on
Translational Equilibrium

The topic of statics deal with objects or structures which are in
equilibrium, that is structures that are at rest or in uniform, (non-
accelerated) motion. We will be normally looking at structures which are
at rest. For these structures we will be interested in determining the
forces (loads and support reactions) acting on the structure and forces
acting within members of the structure (internal forces). To determine
forces on and in structures we will proceed carefully, using a well
defined methodology. This is important as most problems in statics and
strength of materials are not the kind of problem in which we can easily
see the answer, but rather we must relay on our problem solving
techniques.

For static equilibrium problems, we will be able to apply the Conditions
of Equilibrium to help us solve for the force in and on the structures.
There are two general equilibrium conditions: Translational
Equilibrium, and Rotational Equilibrium.


Translational Equilibrium
(Contd)
The Translational Equilibrium condition states that for an
object or a structure to be in translational equilibrium (which
means that the structure as a whole will not experience linear
acceleration) the vector sum of all the external forces acting on
the structure must be zero. Mathematically this may be
expressed as:
EF
all
= 0 or,EF
x
= 0, EF
y
=0, EF
z
=0 in 3-dimensions: , ,
That is, forces in the x-direction must sum to zero, for
translational equilibrium in the x-direction, and, the forces in the
y-direction must sum to zero, for translational equilibrium in the
y-direction, and, the forces in the z-direction must sum to zero,
for translational equilibrium in the z-direction.

To see the application of the first condition of equilibrium
and also the application of a standard problem solving technique,
let's look carefully at introductory examples. Select: Example
1- Concurrent Forces.


Concurrent, Coplanar Forces
Example 1:
In this relatively simple
structure, we have a
weight supported by two
cables, which run over
pulleys (which we will
assume are very low
friction) and are attached to
100 lb. weights as shown in
the diagram. The two cords
each make an angle of 50
o

with the vertical. Determine
the weight of the body. (The
effect of the pulleys is just
to change the direction of
the force, it may be
considered to not effect the
value of the tensions in the
ropes.)

Concurrent, Coplanar Forces
If we examine the first diagram
for a moment we observe this
problem may be classified as a
problem involving Concurrent,
Coplanar Forces. That is, the
vectors representing the two
support forces in Cable 1 and
Cable 2, and the vector
representing the load force will
all intersect at one point, just
above the body. When the force
vectors all intersect at one point,
the forces are said to be
Concurrent. Additionally, we
note that this is a two-
dimensional problem, that forces
lie in the x-y plane only. When
the problem involves forces in
two dimensions only, the forces
are said to be Coplanar

To "Solve" this problem, that is to determine the weight
supported by forces (tensions) in cable 1 and cable 2, we will
now follow a very specific procedure or technique, as follows:
(Example-1 contd) Diagram 2
1. Draw a Free Body
Diagram (FBD) of the
structure or a portion of the
structure. This Free Body
Diagram should include a
coordinate system and vectors
representing all the external
forces (which include support
forces and load forces) acting
on the structure. These forces
should be labeled either with
actual known values or symbols
representing unknown forces.
The second diagram 2 is the
Free Body Diagram of point just
above the weight where with all
forces come together

(Example-1 contd, Diagram 3
2. Resolve (break) forces
not in x or y direction into
their x and y components.
Notice for Cable 1, and
Cable 2, the vectors
representing the tensions in
the cables were acting at
angles with respect to the x-
axis, that is, they are not
simply in the x or y
direction. Thus the forces
Cable 1, Cable 2, we must
be replaced with their
horizontal and vertical
components. In the third
diagram, the components of
Cable 1 and Cable 2 are
shown.

Example 1 (contd)
3. Apply the Equilibrium Conditions and solve for
unknowns. In this step we will now apply the actual
equilibrium equations. Since the problem is in two dimensions
only (coplanar) we have the following two equilibrium
conditions: The sum of the forces in the x direction, and the
sum of the forces in the y direction must be zero. We now
place our forces into these equations, remembering to put the
correct sign with the force, that is if the force acts in the
positive direction it is positive and if the force acts in the
negative direction, it is negative in the equation.
EF
x
= 0 or, -100 cos 40
o
+ 100 cos 40
o
= 0 (Just as we
would expect, the x-forces balance each other.)
EF
y
= 0 or, 100 sin 40
o
+ 100 sin 40
o
- weight of body = 0
In this instance, it is very easy to solve for the weight of the
body from the y-equation; and find:
Weight of body = 128.56 lb.

Learning Outcomes from this chapter
Fundamentals on Forces & their Classification
How Forces are represented
Addition of Forces
Explain the concept of equilibrium and analyze the
equilibrium condition of rigid bodies.
Free Body diagram
Problem solving skills