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Process Modeling
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Outline

Process decomposition diagrams
Data flow diagram (DFD)
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Process Model
A process is a business activity which when executed produces certain
outputs from given inputs
The function(s) performed by a process may be complex, with multiple
inputs, outputs and users
The entire application itself is a process
We use successive decomposition into sub processes to reveal greater
details of the processing
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Function Decomposition
Decomposition splits wok of a task into subtasks; subtasks together make-
up the parent task; not like calling a module
Balanced decomposition: sub-tasks are roughly equal in complexity
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Function Decomposition
Top-down decomposition gives hierarchical structure
Decompose into 2 or more; not more than 5
A high cohesion (high independence) and minimum coupling (minimum
interdependence) are fundamental criteria
Continue decomposition until elementary processes are identified

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Function Decomposition
Elementary process is a smallest unit of activity meaningful to end user
(it sees and leaves data in consistent state)
Process decomposition diagram
A tree structure
Elementary processes are leaf nodes
Data are not shown
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FD Diagrams: Examples
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FD Diagrams: Examples
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Exercise: prepare FDDs for
Railway reservation system
Hospital patient management
Employee payroll

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Function Decomposition
Use proper naming of processes
Business functions named as nouns (marketing, Inventory control, )
Process name consists of an active verb and an object (accept order, calculate
interest, )
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Naming
Avoid long names (sentences containing and, if, then, etc. indicate non-
cohesive complex tasks)
Real world is a good reference for selecting proper names; organizational
units are organized functionally and each unit has a well-defined task
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Data Flow Diagram (DFD)
Very popular tool for describing functions of a system in terms of processes
and data used by them
FDD may be done before DFD or we may prepare DFDs directly
Have more contents than FDDs
Flow of data is shown, not flow of control
DFDs are simple pictorial representations; easily understood by users and
management.
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Data Flow Diagrams (DFD)
DFDs are unambiguous and concise
They can describe processing at physical as well as logical levels
DFDs facilitate top-down development
They permit outlining of preferences and scope
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DFD Notation
Data Flow : labeled arrow
Sources and sinks of information/data (also called external entity)
Process
n
or
(n : number for referencing
Available data (data store)
n
or
or
n
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Example: Air line reservation
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Context Diagram
Shows the entire application as a single process
Identifies its external interfaces
This is the starting point; also called Fundamental System Model, Level 0
DFD
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Context Diagram
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Process Refinement
Decompose a process into sub processes
May reveal more data stores, external interfaces
Use decimal numbering system: process 1 is decomposed into 1.1, 1.2, etc.
At each level, understand all data flows and processing; label processes,
data stores and data flows (arrows) meaningfully.
Continue decomposition and stop when control flow (conditional branches,
loops) surfaces. Refine until processes are well understood.
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Refinement
DFDs do not show control flow
DFDs do not show initializations (such as initial file creation), but show
processes running in a steady state
DFDs only show exceptions/errors having specific business rules to deal
with them; handling of routine errors generally not shown
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Refinement
Processes must be independent of each other (cohesion, coupling
principles apply); work of a process depends only on its inputs and not
on state of another process
Only needed data should be input, and outputs should be based on data
entering the process
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Refinement
Ensure consistency among levels: inputs and outputs at previous level should be
present at next level
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Physical DFD
Shows implementation details
Names and locations of places/people
Ways of storing data (like card indexes)
Tasks as performed today: e.g., 2 persons handling UG, PG students separately.
Useful for describing existing system to validate it with users
Needs to be converted into logical DFD after validation from users
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Showing Boundaries
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DFD Example 1: Payroll
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DFD Example 2: Old Car Mart
Buys and sells old cars; has large number in stock: different models,
make, year,colors,
Does some repairs for adding value; records kept; has own garage
Advertise in news papers
Salesmen hired on commission basis to handle customers, negotiate, etc.
Needs to take stocks; prepare summary of sales, profits, etc; pay salesmen
Prepare DFD and ER diagrams
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Car Mart
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Car Mart
Define data stores and flow clearly to understand the DFD
We can further refine some of the processes
For process 5: Making a sale
Take buyer requirements and his/her other details
List cars that match requirements
Show repair history, car history
Register sale and negotiated price
Compute commission
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E-R Diagram
Add important
attributes, give
cardinalities
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Example 3: Book Supplier
Supplies books to customers; no stocks maintained; books sourced directly
from publishers
Prepare context diagrams
(all inputs/output not shown, such as invoices,..
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Book-Supplier : Refinement 1
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Book Supplier: Exploding Process 2
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Book Supplier : homework
Refinement 1 needs to be extended for handling payments
Extend for : Payments from customers
Create a/c receivable for books sent
Update receivable when payments received
Credit rating will need to be adjusted periodically
Extend for : Payments to publishers
Create a/c payable when invoices received
Check invoices with books actually received
Make payments periodically as per payment terms (within fixed days; incentives
for early payment, etc.)
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Summary
Process modeling by process decomposition
DFD shows data flows, stores and processes, but not control flows
Proper naming of stores, processes and indicating data flowing among
them very important for DFDs to be independently readable