Overview of the Nervous System

Organization of the Nervous System

Peripheral nervous system - PNS
Paired Spinal and Cranial nerves
Carries messages to and from the spinal cord
and brain links parts of the body to the CNS
Central nervous system - CNS
Brain and Spinal Cord (in dorsal body cavity)
Integration and command center interprets
sensory input and responds to input
Central Nervous System
brain
spinal cord
Peripheral Nervous System
peripheral nerves
cranial nerves
spinal nerves
Divisions of the Nervous System
Nervous System
Sensory Input monitoring stimuli occurring inside
and outside the body
Integration interpretation of sensory input
Motor Output response to stimuli by activating
effector organs
Functions:
Divisions Nervous System
Levels of Organization in the
Nervous System
Sensory Division
picks up sensory information and delivers it to the CNS
Motor Division
carries information to muscles and glands
Divisions of the Motor Division
Somatic carries information to skeletal muscle
Autonomic carries information to smooth muscle,
cardiac muscle, and glands
Divisions of Peripheral Nervous System
Sensory Function
sensory receptors gather
information
information is carried to the
CNS
Integrative Function
sensory information used to
create
sensations
memory
thoughts
decisions
Motor Function
decisions are acted
upon
impulses are
carried to effectors
Functions of Nervous System
PNS - Two Functional Divisions
Sensory (afferent) Division
Somatic afferent nerves carry impulses from
skin, skeletal muscles, and joints to the CNS
Visceral afferent nerves transmit impulses
from visceral organs to the CNS
Motor (efferent) Division
Transmits impulses from the CNS to effector
organs, muscles and glands, to effect (bring
about) a motor response
Sensory Neurons
afferent
carry impulse to CNS
most are unipolar
some are bipolar
Interneurons
link neurons
multipolar
in CNS
Motor Neurons
multipolar
carry impulses away
from CNS
carry impulses to
effectors
Classification of Neurons
Motor Division: two subdivisions
Somatic Nervous System (voluntary)
Somatic motor nerve fibers (axons) that conduct
impulses from CNS to Skeletal muscles
allows conscious control of skeletal muscles
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) (involuntary)
Visceral motor nerve fibers that regulate smooth
muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands
Two functional divisions sympathetic and
parasympathetic
Levels of Organization in the Nervous System
Histology of Nerve Tissue
Two principal cell types in the nervous system:
Neurons excitable nerve cells that transmit
electrical signals
Supporting cells cells adjacent to neurons or
cells that surround and wrap around neurons
Cell Types of Neural Tissue
neurons
neuroglial cells
Neurons (Nerve Cells)
Highly specialized, structural units of the nervous
system conduct messages (nerve impulses) from
one part of the body to another
Structure is variable, but all have a neuron cell body
and one or more cell projections called processes.
Long life, mostly amitotic, with a high metabolic
rate (cannot survive more than a few minutes
without O
2
)

Generalized Neuron
Neuron Structure
Nerve Cell Body (Perikaryon or Soma)
Contains the nucleus and a nucleolus
The major biosynthetic center
Has no centrioles
Has well-developed Nissl bodies (rough
ER)
Axon hillock cone-shaped area where
axons arise
Clusters of cell bodies are called Nuclei in the CNS
and Ganglia in the PNS
Processes
Extensions from the nerve cell body. The CNS
contains both neuron cell bodies and their processes.
The PNS consists mainly of neuron processes.
Two types: Axons and Dendrites
Bundles of neuron processes are called
Tracts in the CNS and Nerves in the PNS
Dendrites
Short, tapering, diffusely branched processes
The main receptive, or input regions of the neuron
(provide a large surface area for receiving signals
from other neurons)
Dendrites convey incoming
messages toward the cell body
These electrical signals are not
nerve impulses (not action
potentials), but are short distance
signals called graded potentials
Axons
Slender processes with a uniform diameter arising
from the axon hillock, only one axon per neuron
A long axon is called a nerve fiber, any branches are
called axon collaterals
Terminal branches distal ends are called the axon
terminus (also synaptic knob or bouton)
Axons: Function
Generate and transmit action potentials (nerve impulses),
typically away from the cell body
As impulse reaches the axon terminals, it causes
neurotransmitters to be released from the axon terminals
Movement of substances along axons:
Anterograde - toward axonal terminal (mitochondria,
cytoskeletal, or membrane components)
Retrograde - away from axonal terminal (organelles for
recycling)
Anterograde
Retrograde
Myelin Sheath
Whitish, fatty (protein-lipoid), segmented sheath
around most long axons dendrites are unmyelinated
Protects the axon
Electrically insulates fibers from one another
Increases the speed of nerve impulse transmission
Myelin Sheath
Formed by Schwann cells in the PNS
A Schwann cell envelopes
and encloses the axon with
its plasma membrane.
The concentric layers of
membrane wrapped
around the axon are the
myelin sheath
Neurilemma cytoplasm
and exposed membrane of
a Schwann cell
Nodes of Ranvier (Neurofibral Nodes)
Gaps in the myelin sheath between adjacent Schwann
cells
They are the sites where axon collaterals can emerge
White Matter
contains myelinated
axons
Gray Matter
contains
unmyelinated
structures
cell bodies, dendrites
Myelination of Axons
Axons of the CNS
Both myelinated and unmyelinated fibers are present
Myelin sheaths are formed by oligodendrocytes
Nodes of Ranvier are more widely spaced
There is no neurilemma (cell extensions are coiled
around axons)

White matter dense collections of myelinated fibers
Gray matter mostly soma and unmyelinated fibers
Bipolar
two processes
eyes, ears, nose
Unipolar
one process
ganglia
Multipolar
many processes
most neurons of
CNS
Classification of Neurons
Classification of Neurons
Multipolar three or more processes
Bipolar two processes (axon and dendrite)
Unipolar single, short process
Structural
Neuron Classification
Functional
Sensory (afferent) transmit impulses toward the CNS
Motor (efferent) carry impulses away from the CNS
Interneurons (association neurons) lie between
sensory and motor pathways and shuttle signals
through CNS pathways
Supporting Cells: Neuroglia
Six types of Supporting Cells - neuroglia or glial
cells 4 in CNS and 2 in the PNS
Each has a specific function, but generally they:
Provide a supportive scaffold for neurons
Segregate and insulate neurons
Produce chemicals that guide young neurons
to the proper connections
Promote health and growth
Schwann Cells
peripheral nervous
system
myelinating cell
Oligodendrocytes
CNS
myelinating cell
Astrocytes
CNS
scar tissue
mop up excess ions, etc
induce synapse formation
connect neurons to blood
vessels
Microglia
CNS
phagocytic cell
Ependyma
CNS
ciliated
line central canal of spinal cord
line ventricles of brain
Types of Neuroglial Cells
Supporting Cells: Neuroglia
Neuroglia in the CNS
Astrocytes
Microglia
Ependymal Cells
Oligodendrocytes
Neuroglia in the PNS
Satellite Cells
Schwann Cells
Outnumber neurons in the CNS by 10 to 1, about
the brains mass.
Types of Neuroglial Cells
Astrocytes
Most abundant, versatile, highly branched glial cells
Cling to neurons, synaptic endings, and cover nearby
capillaries
Support and brace neurons
Anchor neurons to nutrient
supplies
Guide migration of young neurons
Aid in synapse formation
Control the chemical environment (recapture K
+
ions
and neurotransmitters)
Microglia
Microglia small, ovoid cells with long spiny
processes that contact nearby neurons
When microorganisms or dead neurons are
present, they can transform into phagocytic cells
Ependymal Cells
Ependymal cells range in shape from squamous to
columnar, many are ciliated
Line the central cavities of the brain and spinal
column
Oligodendrocytes
Oligodendrocytes branched cells that line the thicker
CNS nerve fibers and wrap around them, producing
an insulating covering the Myelin sheath
Schwann Cells and Satellite Cells
Schwann cells - surround fibers of the PNS and form
insulating myelin sheaths
Satellite cells - surround neuron cell bodies within
ganglia
Regeneration of A Nerve Axon
Neurophysiology
Neurons are highly irritable (responsive to stimuli)
Action potentials, or nerve impulses, are:
Electrical impulses conducted along the length
of axons
Always the same regardless of stimulus
The underlying functional feature of the
nervous system
Levels of Polarization
Depolarization inside of the membrane becomes
less negative (or even reverses) a reduction in
potential
Repolarization the membrane returns to its
resting membrane potential
Hyperpolarization inside of the membrane
becomes more negative than the resting potential
an increase in potential
Depolarization increases the probability of producing
nerve impulses. Hyperpolarization reduces the
probability of producing nerve impulses.
Changes in Membrane Potential
Graded Potentials
Short-lived, local changes in membrane potential
(either depolarizations or hyperpolarizations)
Cause currents that decreases in magnitude with
distance
Their magnitude varies directly with the strength of
the stimulus the stronger the stimulus the more the
voltage changes and the farther the current goes
Sufficiently strong graded potentials can initiate
action potentials
Graded Potentials
Voltage changes in graded
potentials are decremental,
the charge is quickly lost
through the permeable
plasma membrane
short- distance signal
Action Potentials (APs)
An action potential in the axon of a neuron is called a
nerve impulse and is the way neurons communicate.
The AP is a brief reversal of membrane potential with
a total amplitude of 100 mV (from -70mV to +30mV)
APs do not decrease in strength with distance
The depolarization phase is followed by a
repolarization phase and often a short period of
hyperpolarization
Events of AP generation and transmission are the
same for skeletal muscle cells and neurons
Na
+
and K
+
channels are closed
Each Na
+
channel has two voltage-regulated
gates
Activation gates
closed in the resting
state
Inactivation gates
open in the resting
state
Action Potential: Resting State
Depolarization opens the activation gate (rapid)
and closes the inactivation gate (slower) The gate
for the K
+
is slowly opened with depolarization.
Depolarization Phase
Na
+
activation gates open quickly and Na
+
enters
causing local depolarization which opens more
activation gates and cell interior becomes
progressively less negative. Rapid depolarization and
polarity reversal.
Threshold a critical level of depolarization
(-55 to -50 mV) where
depolarization becomes
self-generating

Positive Feedback?
Repolarization Phase
Positive intracellular charge opposes further Na
+
entry.
Sodium inactivation gates of Na
+
channels close.
As sodium gates close, the slow voltage-sensitive K
+

gates open and K
+
leaves the cell following its
electrochemical gradient and the internal negativity of
the neuron is restored

Hyperpolarization
The slow K
+
gates remain open longer than is needed
to restore the resting state. This excessive efflux causes
hyperpolarization of the membrane
The neuron is
insensitive to
stimulus and
depolarization
during this time

Role of the Sodium-
Potassium Pump
Repolarization restores the resting electrical
conditions of the neuron, but does not restore the
resting ionic conditions
Ionic redistribution is accomplished by the
sodium-potassium pump following repolarization