Introduction to the

Physics of Ultrasound
HISTORY
MACHINE
PHYSICS











ULTRASOUND PHYSICS
Format

What is sound/ultrasound?
How is ultrasound produced
Transducers - properties
Effect of Frequency
Image Formation
Interaction of ultrasound with tissue




Sound?
Sound is a mechanical, longitudinal
wave that travels in a straight line

Sound requires a medium through which
to travel
Basic Ultrasound Physics
Amplitude
oscillations/sec = frequency - expressed in Hertz (Hz)
What is Ultrasound?
Ultrasound is a mechanical, longitudinal
wave with a frequency exceeding the
upper limit of human hearing, which is
20,000 Hz or 20 kHz.

Medical Ultrasound 2MHz to 16MHz


ULTRASOUND How is it produced?
Produced by passing an
electrical current through
a piezoelectrical crystal



Piezoelectric material
AC applied to a piezoelectric crystal causes
it to expand and contract generating
ultrasound, and vice versa

Naturally occurring - quartz

Synthetic - Lead zirconate titanate (PZT)

Ultrasound Production
Transducer contains piezoelectric
elements/crystals which produce the
ultrasound pulses (transmit 1% of the time)
These elements convert electrical energy
into a mechanical ultrasound wave
The Returning Echo
Reflected echoes return to the
scanhead where the piezoelectric
elements convert the ultrasound wave
back into an electrical signal
The electrical signal is then processed
by the ultrasound system
An electric field realligns the dipoles
in a piezoelectric crystal
PZE (made up of innumerable dipoles)

Arranged in geometric pattern

Electric dipole is distorted molecule

Have positive charge on one end
And negative charge on other end

Application of electric field

Changes shape or physical dimensions

Distorts the alignment

This is called PZE effect



Returning echoes

Transmits energy to transducers

Physical compression of the crystal elements

Which causes dipole to change orientation

This includes voltage between electrodes

On amplification of voltage

Ultrasonic signals are displayed on an oscilloscope or television monitor

This is also called
Piezoelectricity or
Pressure Electricity
Piezoelectric Crystals
The thickness of the crystal determines the
frequency of the scanhead
Low Frequency
3 MHz
High Frequency
10 MHz
Frequency vs. Resolution
The frequency also affects the
QUALITY of the ultrasound image
The HIGHER the frequency, the BETTER
the resolution
The LOWER the frequency, the LESS the
resolution
Frequency vs. Resolution
A 12 MHz transducer has very good resolution,
but cannot penetrate very deep into the body

A 3 MHz transducer can penetrate deep into
the body, but the resolution is not as good as
the 12 MHz
Acoustic impedance (AI) is dependent on the density of
the material in which sound is propagated
- the greater the impedance the denser the material.
Reflections comes from the interface of different AIs
greater of the AI = more signal reflected
works both ways (send and receive directions)
Medium 1



Medium 2



Medium 3



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Interactions of Ultrasound with
Tissue
Interactions of Ultrasound with
Tissue
Reflection
Refraction
Transmission
Attenuation
Interactions of Ultrasound with
Tissue
Reflection
The ultrasound reflects off tissue and returns to
the transducer, the amount of reflection depends
on differences in acoustic impedance
The ultrasound image is formed from reflected
echoes
transducer
Reflection

Non-specular reflection are diffuse scatter from
rough surfaces
Only a very small fraction of energy from non-
specular reflection return to the transducers.

Specular reflection occurs from large smooth
surface.

Specular reflection frequency is independent of
ultrasound frequency

The sound reflected back towards transducers is
called ECHO

Specular reflection echoes are used to generate
ultrasound images

Refraction

1. When US beam passed from one medium to
another its frequency remains constant but its
wavelength changes
2. Refraction is the change in direction of an
ultrasound beam when passing from one tissue to
another at different speed of sound.
3. US machine assumes straight line propagation,
and any refraction effect results in image artifacts
i.e. Spatial Distortion.
4. Real structure are imaged in the wrong location
and loss of resolution in the image


Refraction
Incident
reflective
refraction
Angle of incidence = angle of reflection
Scattered
echoes

Transmission
Some of the ultrasound waves continue deeper into
the body
These waves will reflect from deeper tissue
structures
transducer
Attenuation
Defined - the deeper the wave travels in the
body, the weaker it becomes -3 processes:
reflection, absorption, refraction
Air (lung)> bone > muscle > soft tissue >blood >
water
Interactions of Ultrasound with
Tissue
Attenuation & Gain
Sound is attenuated by tissue
More tissue to penetrate = more
attenuation of signal
Compensate by adjusting gain based on
depth
near field / far field

Ultrasound Gain
Gain controls
receiver gain only
does NOT change power output

Increase gain = brighter
Decrease gain = darker
Reflected Echos
Strong Reflections = White dots
Diaphragm, tendons, bone
Hyperechoic





Weaker Reflections =
Grey dots


Most solid organs,
thick fluid isoechoic
Reflected Echos
Reflected Echos
No Reflections = Black dots
Fluid within a cyst, urine, blood
Hypoechoic or echofree
What determines how far ultrasound waves can
travel?

The FREQUENCY of the transducer
The HIGHER the frequency, the LESS it can
penetrate
The LOWER the frequency, the DEEPER it can
penetrate
Attenuation is directly related to frequency
Image Formation
Electrical signal produces dots on the screen

Brightness of the dots is proportional to the
strength of the returning echoes
Location of the dots is determined by travel
time. The velocity in tissue is assumed constant
at 1540m/sec
Distance = Velocity
Time

ULTRASOUND DISPLAY

A- mode or Amplitude mode
B- mode or brightness mode
T-M mode or Time-Motion mode
Real time imaging
Gray scale imaging
A - Mode

Echoes are displayed as
spikes projecting from
baseline.
Spike height is proportional
to echo intensity.
As pulse passes through the
patient, sound is reflected to
the transducer from each
tissue interface and an echo
spike is generated on the
monitor.

A-mode gives information about the depth of
structures and the amplitude of the returning
echo.

It is used in ophthalmology,
echoencephalography, ECG and as an adjunct
to B-mode when accurate depth measurements
required.
B - Mode

B-mode produces a
picture of a slice of
tissue.
The sound beam
traverses a plane of the
body, and images
transverse or cross
section when drawn
from side to side.

T-M mode

The spikes of A-mode are converted into
dots.
The dots move back and froth.
The M-mode is a intermediate mode that
cannot be meaningfully recorded, so it must
be recorded over a period of time.
Because this is a time-motion study, it is
referred to as the TM mode.
It is used in the electrocardiogram.
REAL TIME SCANNING

The images produced by A and B mode
scanning gives no indication of movement, and
needs external addition of time-base M scan.
In real time scanning it is possible to study
movement of organs and vessels on B scan.
This is done either by linear array of
transducers which produce rectangular or
triangular shaped field or by rotating head with
number of transducers on it.
This is also dependent on scan converters.
Gray-scale imaging
To display the great variation of the amplitudes of
the echoes arising from the tissues as varying
shades of gray on a television monitor.
Gray-scale imaging was made possible by the
development of the scan conversion memory tube
( scan converter).
Scan converter stores the information received and
then generates a signal that is used to produce a
visible image on the television monitor.
Goal of an Ultrasound System
The ultimate goal of any ultrasound system
is to make like tissues look the same and
unlike tissues look different

Accomplishing this goal
depends upon...

Resolving capability of the system
axial/lateral resolution
spatial resolution
contrast resolution
temporal resolution
Processing Power
ability to capture, preserve and display the
information


Types of Resolution
Axial Resolution
specifies how close together two objects
can be along the axis of the beam, yet
still be detected as two separate objects
frequency (wavelength) affects axial
resolution frequency resolution
Types of Resolution
Lateral Resolution
the ability to resolve two adjacent objects
that are perpendicular to the beam axis
as separate objects
beamwidth affects lateral resolution
Types of Resolution
Spatial Resolution
also called Detail Resolution

the combination of AXIAL and LATERAL
resolution - how closely two reflectors
can be to one another while they can be
identified as different reflectors
Types of Resolution
Temporal Resolution
the ability to accurately locate the
position of moving structures at particular
instants in time
also known as frame rate
Types of Resolution
Contrast Resolution
the ability to resolve two adjacent objects
of similar intensity/reflective properties
as separate objects - dependant on the
dynamic range
Artefact
Ultrasound Applications
Visualisation Tool:
Nerves, soft tissue masses
Vessels - assessment of position, size,
patency
Ultrasound Guided Procedures in real
time dynamic imaging; central venous
access, nerve blocks
Summary
Imaging tool Must have the knowledge to
understand how the image is formed

Acquisition and interpretation dependant upon
the skills of the operator.


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