Teknologi Minyak Dan Lemak: Classified - Internal Use Only

M7180-DS intro 9-8 JLG to Mediasense-v12sk
Classified - Internal Use Only

TEKNOLOGI MINYAK DAN LEMAK
Internal use only
The Importance of Fats/Oils
a. High content of energy (the greatest possible storage of energy in the
smallest possible amount of food substance)
b. Allow human to consume fat soluble-vitamins and provide essential
fatty acids
c. Provide a smooth, creamy consistency to many dishes (good mouth-
feel)
d. Economic aspect (> 90 mill ton of oils and fats).national interest
- 60 mill ton of palm fruit
- 11 mill ton of olives
- > 200 mill of oil seeds
Internal use only
e. Substantial market for technical fats
Oil type and non food usage (%)
- Soybean oil 0.25
- Palm oil 10
- Palm kernel oil 10
- Rapeseed oil 40
- Coconut oil 55
- Castor oil 100
- Linseed oil 100
- Tung oil 100
Internal use only
Type of usage (% of total non food usage)
- Fatty acids 36
- Animal feed 29
- Soap 15
- Other 13
- Paints 3
- Lubricants 2
- Polymers 2
Internal use only
Comparison of Diesel oil, rapeseed oil and sunflower oil

Sunflower Rapeseed
Diesel oil Crude oil Methyl ester Crude oil Methyl ester
1. Caloric value (MJ/kg) 42-46 39.28 40.16 37 37.02-37.20
2. Density (g/cm3) 0.835 0.925 0.880 0.92 0.86-0.90
3. Viscosity (cP, 20oC) 3.9 34.7 4.22 68-97 6-9
4. Flash point (oC) 50-77 215.5 183 317-324 111-175
Internal use only
Energy balance from renewable sources
Source Energy balance invested/yielded Energy yield net (GJ/ha)
Sunflower oil 2.8 43.3
Rapeseed oil 2.7 37.9
Ethanol (sugar beet) 2.5 58.9
Corn 1.3 18.4
Wheat 1.1 5.2
Requirements for fuel esters
FFA < 0.2%
Mono, diglycerides < 0.1%
Glycerol < 0.1%
Methanol < 0.2%
Water < 0.1%
Metals (each) < 5 ppm
Internal use only
Components of fats and oils
Fats/Oils : esters of fatty acids with the trihydric alcohol glycerol
1. Glycerol
- propane-1,2,3-triol)
- Physical data (molecular weight 92.11, melting point 20oC,
density 1.2611 g/cm3, viscosity 1 759.6 cP, solubility in
water/alcohol infinitely)

Internal use only
Fatty Acid
o > 200 are known
o Monocarbonic acid, usually derived from aliphatic hydrocarbon
o The structure of fatty acid has a great influence on their physical
data
Internal use only
Occurrence of Fatty Acids
Saturated fatty acids (CnH2nO2)
n Trivial name Occurrence in common oils and fats
4 Butyric Milk fats (3 5)
6 Caproic milk fat (2-3), coconut oil (<1)
8 Caprylic milk fat (< 2, )

Internal use only

Internal use only

Internal use only
Fats and oils of plant origin

Linseed oil : seed of the flax plant Linum usitatissimum, major constituent
linolenic acid, mainly used in the paint and varnish industry

Tung Oil (China wood oil) : seed or nut of the tree Aleurites fordii and
Aleurites montana, highly unsaturated oil (eleostearic acid), rapid drying
properties

Sunflower seed oil : major constituent linoleic and oleic acids

Corn oil : oleic and linoleic acids

Tomato seed oil : by product of tomato paste manufacture, oleic and
linoleic acids
Internal use only
Sesame oil : oleic and linoleic acids, high content of saponifiable matter
such as sesamine and seasamoline (give distinctive color reaction)
Cotton seed oil : high content of linoleic acid
Safflower oil : seed of Carthamus tinctorius, linoleic acid, drying oil
(intermediate characteristic between soybean and linseed oil)
Soybean oil : high content of linoleic acid, the crude oil contains large
amount of non glyceride material (phosphatide)
Rice bran oil : bran of Oryza sativa, contain large amount of non glyceride
material and active lipase, the acidity (during storage) rises at the rate of 1%
per hour
Kapok oil : seed of Ceiba pentandra, palmitic, oleic and linoleic acids

Internal use only
Castor oil : seed of Ricinus communis, high acetyl or hydroxyl value, high
specific gravity, high viscosity, high solubility in glacial acetic acid, lower
solubility in petroleum solventhigh content of ricinoleic acid
Palm oil : palmitic, oleic and linoleic acids
Palm kernel oil : lauric and myristic acids
Cocoa butter/cacao butter : bean of Theobroma cacao, has a specific odor
and flavor, palmitic, stearic and oleic acids
Coconut oil : has a specific odor, lauric and myristic acids
Internal use only
Fats of animal origin

Hog (pig) fat or lard : bacon (subcutaneous fatty tissue), lard/hog fat (rendered
from the internal tissues), palmitic, stearic and oleic acids

Tallow : from the fatty tissues of cattle, sheep and goats, palmitic, stearic and
oleic acids

Sardine oil : from the body of the Caerulea and Ocelata sardinops, palmitic
acid

Cod liver oil : from the fish Gadus morrhua, high content of vit A and D
Internal use only
Physical Properties
Specific gravity/Density
- the specific gravity increases along with increase in the degree of
unsaturation
- the hydrogenation of fat lower heir specific gravity

Melting Point
- the melting point of a fatty acid increases together with the increase in the
chain length of the acids
- the higher unsaturation degree of a substance the lower its melting point
- the melting point of a triglyceride is related to that of the corresponding
fatty acids
- the melting point of a diglyceride is higher than that of the corresponding
triglyceride

Internal use only
Butyric acid -8
Caproic acid -1
Caprylic acid 16
Capric acid 31.3
Lauric acid 43.4
Myristic acid 54.4
Palmitic acid 62.9
Stearic acid 69.6
Oleic acid 16
Elaidic acid 44
Erucic acid 34
Linoleic acid -7
Linolenic acid -13
Internal use only
Boiling Point
-the boiling point of fatty acids increases together with increase in their chain
length
- the vapour pressure of a glyceride is always considerably lower than that of
the corresponding fatty acid
Iodine Value : a measure for determining the unsaturation degree of fats and
fatty acids, defined as the amount of iodine (in gram) which is absorbed by
100 gram of fat
Peroxide Value : a measure for determining the content of reactive oxygen
of fats and oils in terms of milliequivalents of oxygen per 1000 gram fats, for
evaluating their keeping qualities or shelf life.

Internal use only
Acid Value : a measure used for determining the content of free fatty acids
contained in oils/fats; defined as the number of milligrams of potassium
hydroxide needed to neutralize the FFA contained in 1 gram of fat; the acidity
of fats and oils is expressed in terms of %FFA; acid value : FFA = 1 : 0.503
Saponification Value : the number of milligrams of potassium hydroxide
needed to saponify 1 gram of fat.
Acetyl Value : refers to the determination of the free hydroxyl groups
contained in fats and oils; represented by the number of milligrams of
potassium hydroxide needed to neutralize the acetic acid produced by
splitting of 1 gram of acetylated fat
Hydroxyl Value : the number of milligrams of potassium hydroxide required to
neutralize the number of hydroxyls contained in 1 gram of fatty acids.

Internal use only
MINOR COMPONENTS OF FATS AND OILS
Phosphatides
glycerophosphatides
sphyngolipids
Unsaponifiables (the portion of oils and fats which is not saponified; varies
0.5 2%)
sterols (simply alicyclic alcohols)
vitamins-tocopherols (vit A, D, E, K)
waxes (the fatty acids present instead of being esterified with glycerol are
esterified with a sterol or a aliphatic alcohol C26 C36)
coloring substances
aliphatic and terpenic alcohols
saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons
Internal use only
PURIFICATION OF FATS AND OILS

SUBSTANCES MUST BE REMOVED :
1. Solid impurities (solids or meal fines)
The most serious troubles :
- Formation of difficult to process sludge in storage tanks
- Neutral oil losses during neutralization (fines act as emulsifier)
- Slowing down of the processing cycle
2. Mucilagenous materials, phosphatides, peroxides etc
- Soy bean 1.5 3%
- Rapeseed 1.5 2.5%
- Maize 1 - 2%
- Cottonseed 0.5 1.5%
- Sunflower 0.5 1%

Internal use only
3. Volatile impurities (water, solvent, ether etc)
4. Trace metals such as copper and iron (pro-oxidants)
5. Pigments, primary and secondary oxidation products
6. Waxes and unsaponifiables

Internal use only
Degumming with phosphoric acid
Acid charred & precipitated (coagulated) proteins, phosphatides,
gum
Separation : settling & centrifugation
Crude oil is heated to 70 80
o
C, mixed with acid solution (0.3
0.4%, 15 20 minutes)
Sulphuric acid : 66
o
Be, temp 30
o
C, high temp : partial sulphonation
of oil (red color)
Acid : phosphoric, oxalic, citric, sulphuric

Water degumming (purification by hydration)
Phosphatides, proteins & other colloidal impurities soluble in the oil
only in anhydrous form precipitated in the form of flocs of higher
specific gravity
Internal use only
NEUTRALISATION OF FATS AND OILS
Acidity of the oil : expressed as oleic acid (in general as this acid is present
in all fats and oils)
Source of acidity : fermentative process (special enzymes under condition
of temperature split glycerides into glycerol and fatty acid.
The glycerol decomposes, the free fatty acids remain dissolved in the oil
and cause its acidity to rise.
The most effective method to prevent : remove the maximum possible
amount of water from the crude oil
Acidity : neutral losses (split glyceride, neutral oil loss during neutralisation)
Internal use only
Factors :
purity of fats and oils
temperatures
strength of alkaline solutions
saponification time
The most serious dangers : unusual losses of neutral oil, formation of
emulsions hindering soapstock separation, poor settling of soap flocs
Internal use only
In continuous operation
Q = (Q1 x P x A x 1 000) / (100 x M x N)
Q = quantity of NaOH solution (l/h)
Q1 = quantity of oil (l/h)
P = specific weight of oil
A = acidity of the oil, expressed in percent
M = molecular weight of fatty acid
N = strength of NaOH, expressed as normality
Excess NaOH : 6% x Q

Internal use only
Average weight of fatty acid
Coconut oil 205
Palm kernel oil 214
Palm oil 263
Rapeseed oil 308
Wesson loss (W%) = A + I
A = % fatty acid
I = % impurities
Internal use only
The limits of neutralisation losses
FFA <= 4 % = 0.8 + (1.2 x W%)
FFA > 4% = 1.4 x W%
Strength of NaOH
FFA < 1% : 8 12
o
Be
FFA 1 6% : 20
o
Be
FFA > 6% : > 20
o
Be
Washing of oils after neutralisation : to remove the traces of soap, by the
spraying water at a temperature of 90 95
o
C

Internal use only
Neutralisation by Saponification
the reverse of fat hydrolysis/fat splitting
conducted under vacuum, in the presence of an excess of glycerol and at
temperature of 250
o
C, catalyst zinc or zinc chloride
the weakness : occurrence of polymerisation, color change (to red) of the
esterified product, deterioration of flavor
Neutralisation by Distillation (Physical Refining)
through distillation by injected steam to remove free fatty acid
this process cant be applied to all oils :
the oils are heated up to 220 250
o
C, oils undergo certain modification to
their molecular structure and consequently their chemical and physical
characteristic are modified
Internal use only
Neutralisation Via chemical Means

Saponifying the free fatty acids present with aqueous solutions of sodium
hydroxide and seldom with others (potassium hydroxide, sodium carbonate)
and in separating via physical means (settling and centrifugation)

Reaction (reversible ~ temperature and pressure)
Reactants : free fatty acid (R-COOH), NaOH
Products : soap (R-COONa), H2O

The reaction is conducted at atmospheric pressure and medium temperature
(60 80
o
C)

Hydrolysis : high pressure (30 atm), high temperature

Internal use only
BLEACHING
remove coloring matters (to be adsorbed by bleaching agent)
bleaching agents : bleaching earth, activated carbon

Bleaching Earths
special clays activated by chemical or physical processes
treatments : washing by sulphuric acid solution, filtration, drying, grinding
adsorptive effect : surface tension, enhanced by the large surface area.
the treatment of the clay is to remove the foreign matters contains in its
capillary tubes so as to render it extremely porous and extend its surface.
the mineral acid treatment increases the FFA content
Internal use only
ACTIVATED CARBON
animal or plant origin
plant origin : dry distillation of special tree branches
the bleaching action : the large adsorbent surface of carbon held in small
volume, would influence the surface tension of the compound with which it
comes into contact, thus causing adsorption
1 g carbon develop a surface area of several square meters
common practice : mixture of activated carbon and bleaching earth in a
ratio 5 10 % of carbon to 90 95 % of clay
Internal use only
Before being subjected to bleaching, fats/oils must be free of moisture. The
slightest traces of water in a fat may reduce the bleaching action of earths
and activated carbon

Operation : heating the oil to a temperature range of 70 80
o
C under
vacuum

Temperature
has a marked influence on the bleaching process
every type of oil has its own optimum temperature (need preliminary tests
to determine this optimum temperature)
soy bean oil : 100
o
C
Internal use only
Time

contact time has its influence on the decolorizing power of the adsorbent
unique for every type of oil
case : soybean oil
o optimum contact time : 30 minutes
o bleaching temperature : 95
o
C
o amount of bleaching earth : 2%
o absolute pressure : 60 mm Hg
o agitation : vigorous

Continuous process is more effective
Internal use only
Absolute pressure

The surface area is made up by a countless number of capillary tubes,
which in atmospheric ambient will become saturated with air (The
material must be deaerated)

The simplest method : lowering the absolute pressure in the bleaching
vessel to 50 70 mm Hg

Internal use only
Industrial Operation

the bleacher is fed with a set amount of oil, temp 70 80
o
C under vacuum
pressure (barometric condenser and vacuum pump)
the agitator is operated until the moisture is completely removed
after drying, a metered amount of bleaching agent is added and the
temperature is raised to 100 110oC (contact time : 30 min)
The suspension is pumped to the filtration section where the two
components are separated

Internal use only
DEODORISATION
to remove the compound which impart an unpleasant odor and flavor
the compound (0.001 0.010%) : unsaturated carbohydrates, low
molecular weight fatty acids (mainly butyric acid and caproic acid,
aldehydes and ketones (formed during the various refining process)
Great difference in volatility between odoriferous substances and
glyceride
Deodorisation : based on the higher volatile properties of odoriferous
compounds (removed by distillation)
Factors : temperature, pressure, time, material of deodoriser
Internal use only
The boiling point :
Absolute pressure Palmitic acid Stearic acid Oleic acid
(mm Hg) (
o
C) (
o
C) (
o
C)
100 270 290 285
40 244 263 255
10 210 228 220
4 192 209 205
2 179 193 190
Internal use only
Optimum condition for operation :
highest possible temperature
lowest possible absolute pressure
controlled amount of stripping steam
An excessive increase in temperature may result in distillation of part of
the glycerides, polymerisation and partial hydrolysis of the glycerides
A prolonged deodorisation time has the following adverse results :
polymerisation, cooked flavor of the oil, color deterioration of the refined
oil
Deodorisation time : batch 5 12 hours, continue 1 3 hours

Internal use only
Type of oil Pressure (Torr) Temperature (
o
C)
Soybean 10-20 200
4-6 240
Rapeseed 10-20 200
4-6 240
Coconut 10-20 180
4-6 180
Palm 10-20 180
4-6 230
Palm kernel 10-20 180
4-6 230

Teknologi Minyak Dan Lemak: Classified - Internal Use Only

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M7180-DS intro 9-8 JLG to Mediasense-v12sk

Classified - Internal Use Only

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