PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE (Kuliah 1)

PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE:
FOUNDATION OF THEORY
CONSTRUCTION
(LECTURE I)
Instructor
M. Saleh S.Ali
10/5/2014 MK Konstruksi Teori
WELCOME TO
THE CLASS OF THEORY CONSTRUCTION
MEANING OF PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE
Philosophy of science is the branch of
philosophy that studies the philosophical
assumptions, foundations, and
implications of science.
Philosophy of science is the attempt to
understand the meaning, method, and
logical structure of science by means of a
logical and methodological analysis of the
aims, methods, criteria, concepts, laws,
and theories of science (Klemke et.al.
1998).

PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE IS NOT
Philosophy of science is not the history
of science.
Philosophy of science is not
metaphysical cosmology or philosophy
of nature.
Philosophy of science is not the
psychology or sociology of science
SCIENTISTS VS PHILOSOPHERS OF
SCIENCE
Scientists:
Observe what happens in the world and note regularities.
Experiment manipulate some things.
Discover or postulate laws of nature to explain regularities.
Combine laws of nature into theories
Philosophers of science:
Do none the scientists do
They ask questions such as What is a law of nature? What
is a scientific theory? What are the criteria to distinguish or
to demarcate a scientific theory and nonscientific theory?
They clarify the existence of a law of nature.
THINK PHILOSOPHICALLY
1. Holistic; understand a science from many
different perspectives; the essence of
science in relation to others.
2. Fundamental; understand foundations of
facts. Sceptism of facts.
3. Speculative; understand the essence of a
reality/fact through jumping of thinking.
KNOWLEDGE
Philosophy and Science, dealt with
knowledge.
Knowledge is justified true belief
(OBrien, 2006)
Scientific Knowledge is an organized
and systematic knowledge by a
scientific method.
SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE
Belief/Religion Religious Knowledge
Intuition/Thinking Philosophical
Knowledge
Experience Cultural Knowledge
Research Scientific knowledge
TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE
a priori knowledge
What one knows before taking into account
observations or evidence (Knowledge is not
justified by experience, it is accepted as a given
truth, it is innate knowledge)
May include necessary/analytic truths,
assumptions, given facts, etc.
Exp. * All men die
*All bachelors are unmarried man
* Everything has a cause
* Murder is wrong

TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE
a posterior knowledge
What one knows after taking into account
observations and evidence (knowledge is
justified by experience)
May include laws and explanations of natural
or social phenomena.
Exp. *Stress leads to cardiovasculer
deseases.
*Fertilizers increase paddy production
*If there is no conflict, there is no change
HOW TO ACQUIRE KNOWLEDGE

Rationalism
Empiricism
Constructionism
RATIONALISM
Knowledge arises from reasoning, a priory knowledge
The way to knowledge is from the general to the
particular
Requires some general a priori truths which it views as
necessary condition
Characterised by deduction
The general principles gives meaning to the
observations by relating them
Theory-driven
Exp.
All men are mortal;
Socrates is a men;
Therefore, Socrates is mortal
We know this is true because rationally it makes sense

ILLUSTRATION
PREMIS MAYOR
PREMIS MINOR
KNOWLEDGE/
THE TRUTH
DEDUCTIVE
CRITIQUES OF RATIONALISM
Difficulties to set a standard of
evaluating.
Idea is difficult to catch, it is abstract
Difficult to actualize in practical

EMPIRICISM
Knowledge arises from observation, a posterior knowledge
The way to knowledge is from the particular to the general
Requires some particular a posterior truths (perceptions)
which are contingent
Characterised by induction
The general principles arise from the process of relating
observations
Data-driven
Exp.
It has been observed through the years that all
humans die;
Therefore, Socrates will die.
We know this is true because empirically it is supported

ILLUSTRATION
EMPIRICAL
FACTS
KNOWLEDGE/
THE TRUTH
INDUCTIVE
CRITIQUES OF EMPIRICISM
Limitation of our sensory and
perception.
Object sometimes is not real

RATIONALISM, EMPIRICISM AND
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Illustration
PROBLEMS
HYPOTHESIS
KNOWLEDGE/
THE TRUTH
DEDUCTIVE
INDUCTIVE
RATIONALISM
EMPERICISM
FOUNDATION OF SCIENCE
Ontology
(what is the nature of phenomena we seek to know?)
Epistemology
(How do we know what we claim to know?)
Axiology
(What is the role of values in inquiry)
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Problem/Question
Observation/Research/Developing a
Tentative Theory
Formulate a Hypothesis
Experiment
Collect and Analyze Results
Conclusion
Communicate the Results
STEPS OF THE
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
1. Problem/Question: Develop a
question or problem that can be
solved through research or
experimentation.
STEPS OF THE
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
2. Observation/Research/ Developing
a Tentative Theory: Make
observations and research your topic
of interest and developing a tentative
explanation of the problems.
STEPS OF THE
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
3. Formulate a Hypothesis: Predict a
possible answer to the problem or
question.
Example: If soil temperatures rise, then
plant growth will increase.
If the insulin decrease then diabetic
STEPS OF THE
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
4. Experiment: Develop and follow a
procedure.
Include a detailed materials list.
The outcome must be measurable and
explanable
STEPS OF THE
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
5. Collect and Analyze Results: Modify
the procedure if needed.
Confirm the results by retesting.
Include tables, graphs, and
photographs.
STEPS OF THE
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
6. Conclusion:
Include a statement that accepts or
rejects the hypothesis.
Make recommendations for further
study and possible improvements to
the procedure.
STEPS OF THE
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
7. Communicate the Results:
Be prepared to present the project to
an audience.
Expect questions from the audience.
Publishing
(University without research is not a university, but research
without publication is nothing
EXAMPLE
Scientific Method
Observation A patient has fever
Hypothesis
(prediction)
The patient may has influenza
Test The patient is given a drug
(decolgen)
Observe result The patient is still has fever
Revise
hypothesis?
The patient may has typhus.
New test? Re-run medical test (giving a drug
for typhus). Observe results (the
patients temperature is normal)
Scientific Theory Fever is caused by typhus.
PARADIGM
Thomas Kuhn (1962) The Structure of Scientific
Revolution.
According Kuhn, development of science is not always
gradual and cumulative, but it can be revolutionary (jump
drastically) to produce a new perspective.
Kuhn divide science into (a) normal science, dan (b)
extraordinary or revolutionary science,
Normal science adalah pengetahuan yang terakumulasi
secara gradual dan telah diakui oleh masyarakat ilmuan
sebagai dasar untuk pengembangan pengetahuan
selanjutnya. (pengetahuan berkembang secara linier)
Extraordinary atau revolutionary science adalah
pengetahuan yang berkembang yang secara revolutioner
yang bisa saja berbeda dengan pengetahuan yang
mendasarinya. Hal ini bisa terjadi melalui critical
imagination, empirical observation atau konklusi-konklusi
logik.

DEFINITIONS OF PARADIGM
Paradigm is a framework of basic assumptions
including standards for determining the validity of
knowledge, rules of evidence and inference, and
basic principles of cause and effects shared by a
scientific community. (Kuhn, 1970: 111-35).
Paradigm is not only a set of an achievement, a
new, accepted way of solving a problem which then
is used as a model of future work, but also a set of
shared values, the methods, standards and
generalizations shared by those trained to carry on
the scientific work modeled on that paradigm
(Kuhn, 1970)

INGREDIENTS OF PARADIGMS
1. Paradigm as a value system which is standards or rule of
the game.
2. Paradigms as research interest, It tells what is important
and intresting to be studied.
3. Paradigm as theory, a set of axiom, construct and
preposition that explain the object.
4. Paradigm as model, representation of reality based on
theoretical formulations.
5. Paradigm as bodies of facts, it is a collection of facts that
need theoretical explanations.
6. Paradigm as theoretical framework, It is a theoretical
approach th built from a construct, statements or
prepositions.
7. Paradigm as observational frameworks, There is a set of
concept where observable prepositions formulated.
SCIENTIFIC DEVELOPMENT
(KUHN)
Paradigm I
Normal
Science
Anomalies
Crisis Revolution
Paradigm II
NORMAL SCIENCE
MAIN PRINCIPLES
Science develops gradually
Search the relationships between facts and
existing theories
Articulation of theory (in research)
ALMOST ALL SCIENTISTS FOLLOW THIS
MAIN PARADIGM

ANOMALIES
DISCOVERY OF NEW FACTS AND
THEORY
The new facts unexplainable with existing
theories.
Invention of a new theory which is not fit
the existing paradigm (main)

CRISIS
Many scientists doubt the truth of existing
paradigm.
Many theories based on different paradigms.
Unclear paradigm of a science.
Arise fundamental critics toward existing
theories.

REVOLUTION
OLD PARADIGMS LEAVED BY ITS
FOLLOWERS
NEW TEORIES BASED ON A NEW
PARADIGM
PARADIGM SHIFT
Paradigm shift, because:
Anomali
Crisis
Change of thinking
Paradigm shift is a must.
The prison of paradigm

PROCESS OF CRISIS
Crisis
Problems
Time
Old Paradigm
New Paradigm

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