1.

Introduction
Surveying Method chosen depends on:
by the purpose of the survey e.g. map making,
location of specific points, definition of land
ownership etc.,
by the nature of the survey itself e.g. hydrographic,
terrestrial, astronomic,
according to the scale or accuracy of the survey,
the type of instrument or instruments used
e.g.
prismatic compass,
level
theodolite,
photograph (terrestrial or aerial).


1. Introduction
Other factors:
Curvature of earth
over 5 km, vertical angle difference will approach 2.5 minutes which
can readily be detected even with most basic theodolite.
Errors
collimation errors in instruments need to be calibrated otherwise rivers
could flow uphill



Surveying involves
transfer of levels between two points
measurement of angles and lengths.
requires solution of triangular shapes using basic trigonometry
(or by graphical means).
If distances are large: planar geometry no longer applies.
Geodetic surveys allow for curvature of Earth
1:2500 scale maps actually vary in scale
On extreme east and west coasts, scale is approximately 1:2501
Reference is taken along 2
o
W where scale is 1:2499
Along Greenwich Meridian and 4
o
W scale is 1:2500
1. Introduction
Surveying Instruments can be very accurate
Instruments in ENV are capable of accuracies of 1 part in 20000 with ease if
used correctly.
Maps in UK are based on cartesian co-ordinates
North is represented by a bearing of 000.
East a bearing of 090,
South-west a bearing of 225 etc.

Referencing: True North: Grid North: Magnetic North
.
Point location - radial line and distance method. .

2. Basic Surveying Methods
Difference in the Easting (E) is given by:-
sin . E
Northing difference (N)is given by:-

True co-ordinates of the second point:-

Easting =

Northing =


cos . N
sin . E
o

cos . N
o

where is the length of the line,
and is the bearing

where E
o
is Easting
and N
o
is Northing
of the reference station.

N
O

This method can ONLY be used if there is an INBUILT reference
direction in the instrument - e.g. magnetic north
Point location - radial line and distance method. .
No inbuilt reference
2. Basic Surveying Methods
N
O

R
Two horizontal angles are
ALWAYS needed
i.e. a reading to R (a reference
object) as well as object of interest
Applies to most instruments:
Total Stations
Theodolites
Levels etc
Point location - Resection
2. Basic Surveying Methods
A
B
C N
Coordinates of A and B are known
Point C found from bearings at A
and B
or bearings from C to A and B
A
B
C
B
A
B
A
C
C
P
D
External
Triangle of
Errors
Internal Triangle
of Errors
Methods to distribute errors are needed
2. Basic Surveying Methods
Point location - Traverse Methods
b
a
c
A1
b
a
c
A1
A2
b
a
c
A1
e
d
Open Traverse
Errors accumulate
Closed Traverse
Errors can be distributed
Closed Loop Traverse
Errors can be distributed
2. Basic Surveying Methods
Point location - Offset Methods
A
B
2
1
D
1

D
2

d
1

d
2

Useful for mapping features
Not suitable where accuracy is required
2. Basic Surveying Methods
tan d h H
H o
) ( sin
sin sin d
h H
1 2
1 2 H
o



Level Ground
Base Accessible
Level Ground
Base Not Accessible
Height Measurement
2. Basic Surveying Methods
sin d H
S
1 S o
h sin d h H
Height Measurement

H

H
Sloping Ground
Base Accessible
Observations to same height
above ground
Sloping Ground
Base Accessible
Observations to different height
above ground
2. Basic Surveying Methods
) tan tan ( cos d H
1 2 2 S 2

2 S o 1
sin d h H
Height Measurement
Sloping Ground
Base Accessible
Base and Top above and below
observer
H
1

H
2

3. Planning a Survey
Careful Planning is needed
A single missed reading will make whole survey of no
value
Need to provide checks
Abstract raw data in field
Repeat readings if necessary before leaving site.
Remember an extra set of readings may take 15
minutes - but to remobilise and set up again may take
many hours
schedule breaks effectively.
3.2 Basic Requirements
A clear statement of purpose of survey is needed
e.g.
mapping vegetation boundaries; estimating river bank plan
shape or erosion rates;
determining flow characteristics in rivers;
establishing fixed reference stations for future use;
locating the point at which a particular set of measurements
have been taken;
measurement of the profile of a slope;
assessment of regions liable to flooding.
scale of the map required (if relevant).
. The purpose of the survey will dictate the scale and
accuracy required and ultimately the methods to be used.
3.2 Basic Requirements
Secondary Planning Requirements include:-
what equipment is actually available
what time is available
what man-power is available
what access and transport are available.
over what distance will the surveying party be spread during
the surveying?
Will it be necessary to return to the same site at a later date
to take repeat measurements, and if so when (within a few
days, or several weeks or months later?).
How will contact between members of the surveying team
be maintained at distance?

3.2 Basic Requirements
Mapping vegetation boundaries:
accuracy ~ 1:1000 (1 m is represented by 1 mm),
Suitable surveying methods:
compass and tape traverses,
chain and offset mapping,
point resection using a prismatic compass.
height variations, Abney levels will often be adequate.

Alternative methods, if the equipment is available,
use of a surveyor's level and tachymetery,
use of electro-magnetic distance measurement.

3.2 Basic Requirements
Water Slope Measurement
Difference in water surface elevation in a river
is small,
Measurement requires accurate measurement of
height differences over distances which are
usually between 10m and 500m apart.
A good surveying level for which the
collimation error is known is required.

Otherwise river may appear to flow uphill!!

3.2 Basic Requirements
Fixed Control Points
Measurements will be needed to the nearest millimetre
(centimetre) even if associated mapping detail is not
required at this level of accuracy.
Sometimes, such as in the vegetation survey, simple
methods can be used including prismatic compasses to
establish stations,
Control stations will be located more accurately using
a theodolite and associated equipment.

3.2 Basic Requirements
Surveying River Banks
Methods
Radial Line Techniques using tachymetry for general plan
shape of meanders (general profile ~5m).


More accurate methods involving the establishment of short
permanent base lines on the bank parallel to the long stream
direction of the river are needed for erosion studies.

accurate profiles of bank are determined using metre rule
offsets from this reference line to the edge of the river bank.
Decisions needed
what constitutes the edge of the channel?

~10 - 20 m
3.2 Basic Requirements
Size of Survey Party:-
what equipment is to be used for accuracy
access for vehicles
e.g.
a theodolite requires a tripod and targets
may also require targets mounted on tripods
could require a minimum of three tripods and ancillary
equipment.
Often makes sense to establish control stations separate
from detailed purpose of survey
Communication
Radios
Flags?
Markers: Permanent: Temporary????
3.3 Booking of Data

in waterproof notebooks
should be logical
should always be done in the field
if necessary it can be transcribed BUT the ORIGINAL
BOOKING MUST ALWAYS be accessible.
Cross checking should be booked in field
Critical Information which should always be present
Purpose of Survey: (River Bank Mapping at Maes Mawr)
Date: Time: Weather:
Specific Location
Sketch of Area
Bookers Name:
Observers Name

3.4 Permissible Errors
Surveying Method Maximum Error
Prismatic Compass * 0.5
o
Tripod Mounted Compass * 0.05
o
Angular Measurement with a Level 0.1 - 1.0
o
Angular Measurement using a theodolite
(depends on instrument). 1 - 20 seconds
Level transfer using a Surveyor's Level
20 mm per km
Distance measurement using tape 1 part in 400+
Distance measurement using catenary taping 1 part in 1500+
Distance measurement using a subtense bar -
depends on configuration 1 part in 2000 - 10000
Electro magnetic distance measurement * 5 mm irrespective of distance
Closing error in a compass and tape traverse 1 part in 400
Closing error in a theodolite and EDM traverse 1 part in 10000
Closing error on a set of angles at one station
(20 second instrument) * 20 seconds
Closing error in a triangle (20 second
instrument) * 30 seconds
3.5 Treatment of Errors

Systematic Errors
collimation errors in instrucments
magnetic errors affecting all readings at a particular location
Systematic errors (unless large) can be compensated - will
always be present and calibration is important.
Random Errors
observer variations in reading a scale
148.1 148.2 148.0 148.1 148.1
148.1 148.2 147.9 148.1 148.2
Mean is 148.1 - standard deviation is 0.09

3.5 Treatment of Errors

Snedecors Rule


Number of
Observations
Approximation of
Standard Deviation
5 R / 2
10 R / 3
25 R / 4
50 R / 4.5
100 R / 5
Where R is range of readings
3.5 Treatment of Errors

Random Errors
148.1 148.2 148.0 148.1 148.1
148.1 148.2 147.9 149.3 148.2
Mean is 148.22 - should this value be used?
Exclude 149.3 and mean is 148.10
standard deviation is 0.10
value of 149.3 is 12 standard deviations from mean
and should be excluded.

Gross Errors should always be discarded

3.6 Provision of Checks

Going to repeat a survey is time consuming
Always provide a check
pace out a distance
sight on three positions rather than basic two
if measuring three stations - take readings at all three
stations - sum of angles should be 180
o

For Level transfers
e.g. elevation profile of longstream of river
trace river from start to finish
transfer level back along back - differences should be same
if errors are unacceptable (e.g. 20 mm per 1 km) then repeat
until consistency is achieved


148.1 148.2 148.0 148.1 148.1
148.1 148.2 147.9 149.3 148.2
Mean is 148.22 - should this value be used?
Exclude 149.3 and mean is 148.10
standard deviation is 0.10
value of 149.3 is 12 standard deviations from mean
and should be excluded.

Gross Errors should always be discarded

3.7 An example of Bad Planning

ENV students doing their third year project in 1992 in Derbyshire
needed to map meanders
decided to use radial line method and tachymetry using level
measured A to RO
Lady
Bower
Reservoir
A
B
C
D
E
RO
moved to B
measured radial lines at A
measured radial lines at B
measured B to A
moved to C
etc
Despite careful planning points B, C, D and E
could not be located!
3.7 An example of Bad Planning
A
B
C
RO
What should have been done?
Before leaving Derbyshire, map
should have been plotted.
Before moving from A to B
measure A to B
When at B measure from B to A