RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Organization and Functions of

the Respiratory System
Structural classifications:
upper respiratory tract
lower respiratory tract.
Functional classifications:
Conducting portion: transports air.
1. Nose
2. nasal cavity
3. Pharynx
4. Larynx
5. Trachea
6. progressively smaller airways, from the primary bronchi
to the bronchioles
Organization and Functions of
the Respiratory System
Functional classifications: continued
Conducting portion: transports air.

Respiratory portion: carries out gas exchange.
respiratory bronchioles
alveolar ducts
air sacs called alveoli
Upper respiratory tract is all conducting
Lower respiratory tract has both conducting and
respiratory portions
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Respiratory System Functions
1. Breathing (pulmonary ventilation):
consists of two cyclic phases:
inhalation, also called inspiration
exhalation, also called expiration
Inhalation draws gases into the lungs.
Exhalation forces gases out of the lungs.
2. Gas exchange: O
2
and CO
2
External respiration
External environment and blood
Internal respiration
Blood and cells
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Respiratory System Functions
3. Gas conditioning:
Warmed
Humidified
Cleaned of particulates
4. Sound production:
Movement of air over true vocal cords
Also involves nose, paranasal sinuses, teeth,
lips and tongue
5. Olfaction (act or process of smelling):
Olfactory epithelium over superior nasal
conchae
6. Defense:
Course hairs, mucus, lymphoid tissue

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Upper Respiratory Tract
Composed of
1. the nose
2. the nasal cavity
3. the paranasal sinuses
4. the pharynx (throat)
5. and associated structures.
All part of the conducting portion of the
respiratory system.
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Upper Respiratory Tract
Paranasal Sinuses
Paranasal sinuses:
In four skull bones
paired air spaces
decrease skull bone weight
Named for the bones in which they are housed.
frontal
ethmoidal
sphenoidal
maxillary
Communicate with the nasal cavity by ducts.
Covered with the same pseudostratified ciliated
columnar epithelium as the nasal cavity.

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Pharynx
Common to both the respiratory and
digestive systems.
Commonly called the throat.
Funnel-shaped
slightly wider superiorly and narrower
inferiorly.
Originates posterior to the nasal and oral
cavities
Extends inferiorly near the level of the
bifurcation of the larynx and esophagus.
Common pathway for both air and food.

Pharynx
Walls:
lined by a mucosa
contain skeletal muscles primarily used for
swallowing.
Flexible lateral walls
distensible
to force swallowed food into the esophagus.
Partitioned into three adjoining regions:
nasopharynx
oropharynx
laryngopharynx
Nasopharynx
Superiormost region of the pharynx.
Location:
posterior to the nasal cavity
superior to the soft palate
separates it from the posterior part of the oral cavity.
Normally, only air passes through.
Soft palate
Blocks material from the oral cavity and oropharynx
elevates when we swallow.
Auditory tubes
paired
In the lateral walls of the nasopharynx
connect the nasopharynx to the middle ear.
Pharyngeal tonsil
posterior nasopharynx wall
single
commonly called the adenoids.
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Oropharynx
The middle pharyngeal region.
Location:
Immediately posterior to the oral cavity.
Bounded by the soft palate superiorly,
the hyoid bone inferiorly.
Common respiratory and digestive pathway
both air and swallowed food and drink pass through.
2 pairs of muscular arches
anterior palatoglossal arches
posterior palatopharyngeal arches
form the entrance from the oral cavity.
Lymphatic organs
provide the first line of defense against ingested or inhaled foreign
materials.
Palatine tonsils
on the lateral wall between the arches
Lingual tonsils
At the base of the tongue.

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Laryngopharynx
Inferior, narrowed region of the pharynx.
Location:
Extends inferiorly from the hyoid bone
is continuous with the larynx and esophagus.
Terminates at the superior border of the esophagus
is equivalent to the inferior border of the cricoid cartilage in the
larynx.
The larynx (voice box) forms the anterior wall
Lined with a nonkeratinized stratified squamous
epithelium (mucus membrane)
Permits passage of both food and air.
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Lower Respiratory Tract
Conducting portion
Larynx
Trachea
Bronchi
bronchioles and their associated structures
Respiratory portion of the respiratory
system
respiratory bronchioles
alveolar ducts
alveoli
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Larynx
Short, somewhat cylindrical airway
Location:
bounded posteriorly by the laryngopharynx,
inferiorly by the trachea.
Prevents swallowed materials from
entering the lower respiratory tract.
Conducts air into the lower respiratory
tract.
Produces sounds.
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Larynx
Nine pieces of cartilage
three individual pieces
Thyroid cartilage
Cricoid cartilage
Epiglottis
three cartilage pairs
Arytenoids: on cricoid
Corniculates: attach to arytenoids
Cuniforms:in aryepiglottic fold
held in place by ligaments and muscles.
Intrinsic muscles: regulate tension on true vocal
cords
Extrinsic muscles: stabilize the larynx
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Trachea
A flexible, slightly rigid tubular organ
often referred to as the windpipe.
Extends through the mediastinum
immediately anterior to the esophagus
inferior to the larynx
superior to the primary bronchi of the lungs.
Anterior and lateral walls of the trachea are supported by
15 to 20 C-shaped tracheal cartilages.
cartilage rings reinforce and provide some rigidity to the
tracheal wall to ensure that the trachea remains open (patent) at
all times
cartilage rings are connected by elastic sheets called anular
ligaments

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25-23
Trachea
At the level of the sternal angle, the trachea bifurcates into two
smaller tubes, called the right and left primary bronchi.
Each primary bronchus projects laterally toward each lung.
The most inferior tracheal cartilage separates the primary
bronchi at their origin and forms an internal ridge called the
carina.

25-24
Bronchial Tree
A highly branched system
air-conducting passages
originate from the left and right primary bronchi.
Progressively branch into narrower tubes as they diverge
throughout the lungs before terminating in terminal
bronchioles.
Primary bronchi
Incomplete rings of hyaline cartilage ensure that they remain open.
Right primary bronchus
shorter, wider, and more vertically oriented than the left primary
bronchus.
Foreign particles are more likely to lodge in the right primary
bronchus.
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Bronchial Tree
Primary bronchi
enter the hilum of each lung
Also entering hilum:
pulmonary vessels
lymphatic vessels
nerves.
Secondary bronchi (or lobar bronchi)
Branch of primary bronchus
left lung:
two lobes
two secondary bronchi
right lung
three lobes
three secondary bronchi.
Tertiary bronchi (or segmental bronchi)
Branch of secondary bronchi
left lung is supplied by 8 to 10 tertiary bronchi.
right lung is supplied by 10 tertiary bronchi
supply a part of the lung called a bronchopulmonary segment.
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25-27
Respiratory Bronchioles, Alveolar
Ducts, and Alveoli
Contain small saccular outpocketings called alveoli.
An alveolus is about 0.25 to 0.5 millimeter in diameter.
Its thin wall is specialized to promote diffusion of gases
between the alveolus and the blood in the pulmonary
capillaries.
Gas exchange can take place in the respiratory bronchioles and
alveolar ducts as well as in the lungs, which contain
approximately 300400 million alveoli.
The spongy nature of the lung is due to the packing of millions
of alveoli together.
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Lungs: Gross Anatomy
Each lung has a conical shape.
Its wide, concave base rests upon the muscular
diaphragm.
Its relatively blunt superior region, called the apex or
(cupola), projects superiorly to a point that is slightly
superior and posterior to the clavicle.
Both lungs are bordered by the thoracic wall anteriorly,
laterally, and posteriorly, and supported by the rib cage.
Toward the midline, the lungs are separated from each
other by the mediastinum.
The relatively broad, rounded surface in contact with the
thoracic wall is called the costal surface of the lung.

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Pleura and Pleural Cavities
The outer surface of each lung and the adjacent
internal thoracic wall are lined by a serous
membrane called pleura, which is formed from
simple squamous epithelium.
The outer surface of each lung is tightly
covered by the visceral pleura, while the
internal thoracic walls, the lateral surfaces of
the mediastinum, and the superior surface of
the diaphragm are lined by the parietal pleura.
The parietal and visceral pleural layers are
continuous at the hilum of each lung.



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Pleura and Pleural Cavities
The outer surface of each lung is tightly covered by the visceral pleura,
while the internal thoracic walls, the lateral surfaces of the mediastinum,
and the superior surface of the diaphragm are lined by the parietal pleura.
The potential space between these serous membrane layers is a pleural
cavity.
The pleural membranes produce a thin, serous fluid that circulates in the
pleural cavity and acts as a lubricant, ensuring minimal friction during
breathing.


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25-41
Lymphatic Drainage
Lymph nodes and vessels are located within the connective
tissue of the lung as well as around the bronchi and pleura.
The lymph nodes collect carbon, dust particles, and pollutants
that were not filtered out by the pseudostratified ciliated
columnar epithelium.

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LUNG MECHANICS
MECHANICS
the branch of physics that deals with the action of
forces on bodies and with motion, comprised of
kinetics, statics, and kinematics.

the theoretical and practical application of this
science to machinery, mechanical appliances, etc.

the technical aspects of working of something;
mechanism; structure.

the science of designing, constructing, and
operating machines
LUNG MECHANICS
Some Terminologies and Facts
LUNG MECHANICS
Some Terminologies and Facts
LUNG MECHANICS
Some Terminologies and Facts
Spirometer
Pulmonary Volumes & Capacities
Spirometry: capacities
Remember: A capacity is always a
sum of certain lung volumes
TLC = IRV + TV + ERV + RV
VC = IRV+ TV + ERV
FRC = ERV + RV
IC = TV + IRV
Spirometry
4 volumes and 4 capacities
Effort dependent
Values vary to height, age, sex &
physical training
IRV = 2.5 L * IC = 3 L
TV = 0.5 L * VC = 4.5 L
ERV = 1.5 L * FRC = 2.5 L
RV = 1 L * TLC = 5.5 L
Spirometry
REMEMBER: Spirometry cannot measure
Residual Volume (RV) thus Functional
Residual Capacity (FRC) and Total Lung
Capacity (TLC) cannot be determined using
spirometry alone.

FRC and TLC can be determined by 1) Helium
dilution, 2) Nitrogen washout, or 3) body
plethysmography
Physiological Lung Structure
Lung weighs 1.5% of body weight
1 kg in 70 kg adult
Alveolar tissue is 60% of lung weight

Alveoli have very large surface area
70 m
2
internal surface area
40 x the external body surface area

Short diffusion pathway for gases
Permits rapid & efficient gas exchange into blood
1.5 m between air & alveolar capillary RBC
Blood volume in lung - 500ml (10% of total blood volume)
Respiratory Mechanics
Multiple factors required to alter
lung volumes
Respiratory muscles generate force to inflate
& deflate the lungs
Tissue elastance & resistance impedes
ventilation
Distribution of air movement within the
lung, resistance within the airway
Overcoming surface tension within alveoli
The Breathing Cycle
Airflow requires a pressure gradient
Air flow from higher to lower pressures
During inspiration alveolar pressure is sub-
atmospheric allowing airflow into lungs
Higher pressure in alveoli during expiration
than atmosphere allows airflow out of lung
Changes in alveolar pressure are generated
by changes in pleural pressure
MUSCLES OF BREATHING
Muscles of Inspiration
MUSCLES OF BREATHING
Muscles of Exspiration
Inspiration
Active Phase Of Breathing Cycle
Motor impulses from brainstem activate muscle
contraction
Phrenic nerve (C 3,4,5) transmits motor stimulation to
diaphragm
Intercostal nerves (T 1-11) send signals to the external
intercostal muscles
Thoracic cavity expands to lower pressure in pleural space
surrounding the lungs
Pressure in alveolar ducts & alveoli decreases
Fresh air flows through conducting airways into terminal
air spaces until pressures are equalized
Lungs expand passively as pleural pressure falls
The act of inhaling is negative-pressure ventilation
Muscles of Inspiration: Diaphragm
Most Important Muscle Of Inspiration
Responsible for 75% of inspiratory effort
Thin dome-shaped muscle attached to the lower ribs, xiphoid process,
lumbar vertebra
Innervated by Phrenic nerve (Cervical segments 3,4,5)
During contraction of diaphragm
Abdominal contents forced downward & forward causing increase in vertical
dimension of chest cavity
Rib margins are lifted & moved outward causing increase in the transverse
diameter of thorax
Diaphragm moves down 1cm during normal inspiration
During forced inspiration diaphragm can move down 10cm
Paradoxical movement of diaphragm when paralyzed
Upward movement with inspiratory drop of intrathoracic pressure
Occurs when the diaphragm muscle is denervated
Diaphragm
Movement of Thorax During
Breathing Cycle
Movement of Diaphragm
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Thoracic Wall Dimensional
Changes During Respiration
Lateral dimensional changes occur
with rib movements.

Elevation of the ribs increases the
lateral dimensions of the thoracic
cavity, while depression of the ribs
decreases the lateral dimensions of
the thoracic cavity.
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Inspiration Expiration
Muscles that Move the Ribs
The scalenes help increase thoracic cavity dimensions
by elevating the first and second ribs during forced
inhalation.
The ribs elevate upon contraction of the external
intercostals, thereby increasing the transverse
dimensions of the thoracic cavity during inhalation.
Contraction of the internal intercostals depresses the
ribs, but this only occurs during forced exhalation.
Normal exhalation requires no active muscular effort.
A small transversus thoracis extends across the inner
surface of the thoracic cage and attaches to ribs 26.
It helps depress the ribs.
Muscles that Move the Ribs
Two posterior thorax muscles also assist with respiration.
These muscles are located deep to the trapezius and
latissimus dorsi, but superficial to the erector spinae
muscles.
The serratus posterior superior elevates ribs 25 during
inhalation, and the serratus posterior inferior depresses ribs
812 during exhalation.
In addition, some accessory muscles assist with respiratory
activities.
The pectoralis minor, serratus anterior, and
sternocleidomastoid help with forced inhalation, while the
abdominal muscles (external and internal obliques,
transversus abdominis, and rectus abdominis) assist in active
exhalation.

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Muscles of Inspiration
External Intercostal Muscles
The external intercostal muscles connect to adjacent ribs
Responsible for 25% of inspiratory effort
Motor neurons to the intercostal muscles originate in the respiratory
centers of the brainstem and travel down the spinal cord. The motor
nerves leave the spinal cord via the intercostal nerves. These originate
from the ventral rami of T1 to T11, they then pass to the chest wall
under each rib along with the intercostal veins and arteries.
Contraction of EIM pulls ribs upward & forward
Thorax diameters increase in both lateral & anteroposterior directions
Ribs move outward in bucket-handle fashion
Intercostals nerves from spinal cord roots innervate EIMs
Paralysis of EIM does not seriously alter inspiration because
diaphragm is so effective but sensation of inhalation is decreased
Muscles of respiration
Muscles of Inspiration
Accessory Muscles
These muscles assist with forced inspiration
during periods of stress or exercise

Scalene Muscle
Attach cervical spine to apical rib
Elevate the first two ribs during forced inspiration
Sternocleidomastoid Muscle
Attach base of skull (mastoid process) to top of
sternum and clavicle medially
Raise the sternum during forced inspiration
Boyles Law
The pressure of a gas decreases if the volume of
the container increases, and vice versa.
When the volume of the thoracic cavity increases even
slightly during inhalation, the intrapulmonary pressure
decreases slightly, and air flows into the lungs
through the conducting airways.
Air flows into the lungs from a region of higher
pressure (the atmosphere) into a region of lower
pressure (the intrapulmonary region).
When the volume of the thoracic cavity decreases
during exhalation, the intrapulmonary pressure
increases and forces air out of the lungs into the
atmosphere.

Goals of Respiration
Primary Goals Of The Respiration System
Distribute air & blood flow for gas
exchange
Provide oxygen to cells in body tissues
Remove carbon dioxide from body
Maintain constant homeostasis for
metabolic needs


Functions of Respiration
Respiration divided into four functional events:

1.Mechanics of pulmonary ventilation
2.Diffusion of O
2
& CO
2
between alveoli and
blood
3.Transport of O
2
& CO
2
to and from tissues
4.Regulation of ventilation & respiration
External & Internal Respiration
External Respiration
Mechanics of breathing
The movement of gases
into & out of body
Gas transfer from lungs
to tissues of body
Maintain body &
cellular homeostasis
Internal Respiration
Intracellular oxygen
metabolism
Cellular transformation
Krebs cycle aerobic
ATP generation
Mitochondria & O2
utilization
REGULATION OF
BREATHING
Respiratory Cycle and its control
Respiration rate is the number of
breaths per minute
Human respiration rate is controlled
by a part of the brain called the
medulla
Sends signals to adjust levels of oxygen
present in your body by changing your
breathing rate
Ventilation Control by Respiratory
Centers of the Brain
The trachea, bronchial tree, and lungs are innervated
by the autonomic nervous system.
The autonomic nerve fibers that innervate the heart
also send branches to the respiratory structures.
The involuntary, rhythmic activities that deliver and
remove respiratory gases are regulated in the
brainstem.
Regulatory respiratory centers are located within the
reticular formation through both the medulla
oblongata and pons.
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CHEMICAL CONTROL OF BREATHING
CHEMICAL CONTROL OF BREATHING
PULMONARY VENTILATION
Pulmonary Ventilation
Pulmonary ventilation is a measure of the rate of ventilation,
referring to the total exchange of air between the lungs and the
ambient or surrounding air.
Pulmonary Ventilation is the total volume of gas per minute
inspired or expired.
The main purpose of ventilation is to maintain an
optimal composition of alveolar gas
Alveolar gas acts as stabilizing buffer compartment between
the environment & pulmonary capillary blood
Oxygen constantly removed from alveolar gas by blood
Carbon dioxide continuously added to alveoli from blood
O
2
replenished & CO
2
removed by process of ventilation, by simple
diffusion.
The two ventilation phases (inspiration & expiration) provide
this stable alveolar environment
Breathing is the act of creating inflow & outflow of air between
the atmosphere and the lung alveoli
Pulmonary Ventilation
Pulmonary Ventilation
Lung Volume and Capacities
Lung Volume and Capacities
Lung Volumes and Capacities
Intrathoracic Pressure
Intrapulmonary Pressure
Composition of Inspired Air,
Expired Air and Alveolar Air
Carriage of Gases by blood
Compliance of the Lungs
Compliance is a measure of the distensibility of the lungs
Compliance = change in lung volume/ change in lung
pressure

Cpulm = DVpulm / Dppulm

Normal static compliance is 70-100 ml of air/cm of H2O
transpulmonary pressure

Different compliances for inspiration & expiration
based on the elastic forces of lungs
Compliance reduced by higher or lower lung volumes, higher
expansion pressures, venous congestion, alveolar edema,
atelectasis & fibrosis
Compliance increased with age & emphysema secondary to
alterations of elastic fibers
Elastic Forces of the Lung
Elastic Lung Tissue

Elastin & Collagen fibers of
lung parenchyma
Natural state of these fibers
is contracted coils
Elastic force generated by
the return to this coiled state
after being stretched and
elongated
The recoil force assists to
deflate lungs
Surface Air-fluid
Interface

2/3 of total elastic force in
lung
Surface tension of H2O
Complex synergy between air
& fluid holds alveoli open
Without air in the alveoli a
fluid filled lung has only lung
tissue elastic forces to resist
volume changes
Surfactant in the alveoli fluid
reduces surface tension,
keeps alveoli from collapsing
Factors Determining Airway Resistance
Lung Volume
Linear relationship between lung volumes & conductance
of airway resistance
As lung volume is reduced - airway resistance increases
Bronchial Smooth Muscle
Contraction of airways increases resistance
Bronchoconstriction caused by PSN, acetylcholine, low
Pco
2,
direct stimulation, histamine, environmental, cold
Density & Viscosity Of Inspired Gas
Increased resistance to flow with elevated gas density
Changes in density rather than viscosity have more
influence on resistance
Organs in the Respiratory System
STRUCTURE FUNCTION
nose / nasal cavity
warms, moistens, & filters air as it is
inhaled
pharynx (throat) passageway for air, leads to trachea
larynx
the voice box, where vocal chords are
located
trachea (windpipe)
keeps the windpipe "open"
trachea is lined with fine hairs called
cilia which filter air before it reaches the
lungs
bronchi
two branches at the end of the trachea,
each lead to a lung
bronchioles
a network of smaller branches leading from
the bronchi into the lung tissue &
ultimately to air sacs
alveoli
the functional respiratory units in the lung
where gases are exchanged
Malfunctions & Diseases of the Respiratory System
asthma
severe allergic reaction
characterized by the
constriction of bronchioles
bronchitis
inflammation of the lining of
the bronchioles
emphysema
condition in which the alveoli
deteriorate, causing the lungs
to lose their elasticity
pneumonia
condition in which the alveoli
become filled with fluid,
preventing the exchange of
gases
lung cancer
irregular & uncontrolled
growth of tumors in the lung
tissue