Plasticity

Nilesh Prakash Gurao

Assistant Professor
Department of Materials Science and Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur
Kalyanpur, Kanpur 208016 UP, India

Class Hours: T-W-Th 8:00 am
Venue: Lecture Hall Complex (L9)

Permanent deformation that cannot be recovered after load removal

Hookes law (linear relation between stress and strain) not valid

Beyond Hookes law to failure Plastic behaviour

Tensile test to study plastic behaviour

Elastic properties may be of interest, but these are measured
ultrasonically much more accurately that by tension testing


Change in dimensional and shape loss of tolerance(s)


premature retirement of a structure or component from service

Design and analysis of engineering structures and components

Plasticity theory deals with yielding of materials under complex stress
states

Utility :
To decide whether or not a material will yield under a stress state
To determine the shape change that will occur if it does yield
Utilise tensile test data for predicting the work-hardening during
deformation under such complex stress states.
Provides basis for developing computer codes for predicting
Provides codes for designing forming dies
Permanent deformation beyond a critical value of stress

Conditions for yielding under complex stress state

f (
x
,
y
,
z
,
yz
,
zx
,
xy
) = C, where C is a material constant.

f (
1
,
2
,
3
) = C for isotropic material

Most solid materials, it is reasonable to assume that yielding is
independent of the level of mean normal stress,

m
= (
1
+
2
+
3
)/3 plastic deformation causes no volume change.

Elasticity is stretching bonds, plasticity is shearing planes of atoms by slip
and twinning With slip and twinning only the shear stresses are important.
With this simplification, the yield criteria must be of the form
f [(
2

3
), (
3

1
), (
1

2
)] = C.
Tresca maximum shear stress criterion
The simplest yield criterion is one first proposed by Tresca.
It states that yielding will occur when the largest shear stress reaches a critical
value.
The largest shear stress is

max
= (
max

min
)/2
the Tresca criterion can be expressed as

max

min
= C.
If the convention is maintained that
1

2

3
, this can be written as

1

3
= C.
The constant C can be found by considering uniaxial tension.
In a tension test,
2
=
3
= 0 and at yielding
1
= Y, where Y is the yield strength.
Substituting into Equation C = Y.
Therefore the Tresca criterion may be expressed as

1

3
= Y
For pure shear,

1
=
3
=k, where k is the shear yield strength.
Substituting in Equation
k = Y/2, so
1

3
= 2k = C.

Elastic
Plastic on surface of yield locus
Von Mises Criterion
Second invariant of deviatoric stress (distortion strain energy )reaches a critical
value

J
2
= k
2
, for principal stress








Generalized von mises or J2 Flow theory



| |
2 2
1 3
2
3 2
2
2 1
) ( ) ( ) (
6
1
k = + + o o o o o o
| |
2
1
2
1 3
2
3 2
2
2 1 0
0
2 2
0
3 2 0 1
) ( ) ( ) (
2
1
3
2
6
1
0 ,
o o o o o o o
o
o
o o o o
+ + =
=
=
= = =
k
k
| |
2
1
2 2 2 2 2 2
0
6 6 6 ) ( ) ( ) (
2
1
zx yz xy x z z y y x
t t t o o o o o o o + + + + + =
Von Mises Criterion: Plane stress condition
Equation can be simplified if one of the principal
stresses is zero (plane-stress conditions). Substituting

3
= 0,

1
2
+
2
2

1

2
= Y
2
, which is an ellipse.
With further substitution of =
2
/
1
,

1
= Y/(1 +
2
)
1/2
.
Consider an isotropic material loaded so that the
principal
stresses coincide with the x, y, and z axes. Assuming
the von Mises yield criterion
Applies. We can now make a plot of
y
versus
x

yield locus with
z
= 0.
Let
x
=
1
,
y
=
2
, and
z
=0.
Now =
2
/
1
. Figure show results from
substituting several values of into Equation
solving for

x
/Y and
y
/Y =
x
/Y,
and then plotting.
The maximum ratio of
1
/Y
corresponds to the minimum value
1 +
2
.
Differentiating and setting to zero,
d(1 +
2
)/d = 1 + 2; = 1/2.
Substituting into equation ,

1
/Y = [1 1/2 + (1/2)2]
1/2

= (4/3) = 1.155.
Graphical Representations
Tresca criterion
Von Mises criterion
Region within yield locus is elastic

Onset of plasticity at the yield locus

What happens beyond is unknown

Explained by Druckers postulate, flow rule and hardening behaviour
Comparison of experimental and empirical
multiaxial yield criteria.
(After Courtney, 1990. Reprinted with
permission from McGraw-Hill.)
15.5% difference between Tresca and von Mises
No difference in two criterion in uniaxial and biaxial tension and compression

Tresca is more conservative in shear
Yield surfaces in 3D
Centre line is <111> and hydrostatic stress
(1+ 2+ 3)/3 acts along it
Tresca and von Mises yield locus are ideally hexagonal prism and cylinder in 3D

Yield locus in 2D is actually a section of this prism or cylinder
Anisotropy of Yield surface
Hill Criterion
Energy has to be expended for plastic deformation

Rate of energy dissipation is non-negative

The total plastic strain vector must be normal to the yield surface





Yield locus is always convex

True stress true strain curve stress always increases with strain




vector strain l incrementa is d where
d
p
ij
p
ij ij
c
c o 0 >
Druckers rule
Hardening rule
Expansion of yield locus with plastic deformation Strain hardening

Isotropic

Kinematic (anisotropic) Bauschinger effect Tension-compression asymmetry

YS in compression < YS in tension

Rotational

Actual is combination of all the three




Isotropic Kinematic Rotational
Effective stress and strain
Need to compare different tests say tension, torsion, compression

Complex state of stress

Effective stress and strain for comparison

Different stress strain curves can be compared in terms of von Mises
stress-strain curves

You can then compare say torsion test with tensile test




Proportional Loading
Plastic strains are independent of strain path

Ideal condition

Real life complicated stress history

Plastic stress-strain relationship is important to understand deformation behaviour
of materials

Relate stress and strain in increments Incremental/Flow theories

Relate stress to total strain Deformation/Total strain theory

The latter is easy but the former is more accurate

Both the theories coincide for proportional loading


Ideal plastic solid where elastic strains are negligible

Constant volume in plasticity





Ratio of plastic strain increment to current deviatoric stress is constant









Elasto-plastic is more complicated Levy-Mises criterion


0
33 22 11
= + + c c c

o
c
o
c
o
c
d
d d d
= = =
3
3
2
2
1
1
' ' '
Yield criterion whether material deforms plastically or not

Hardening rule how material continues to deform

Flow rule what path material follows during plastic deformation to achieve
new position according to hardening rule


Generalized theory of plasticity
Tensile properties Materials selection for applications

Tensile properties compare new materials or processes in R&D

With plasticity theory, tensile stressstrain curves can be used to predict a
materials behavior under forms of loading other than uniaxial tension, (von
Mises criterion or J2 flow theory)

Often the primary concern is strength

The level of stress that causes appreciable plastic deformation of a material
is called its yield stress.

The maximum tensile stress that a material carries is called its tensile
strength (or ultimate strength or ultimate tensile strength).

A materials ductility is also of interest. Ductility is a measure of how much
the material can deform before it fractures



Tension Test
Stress-strain curve
Elastic Limit and Yield Strength
True Elastic limit ~10
-6
Hookes law is valid

Proportional limit as the first departure from linearity

Elastic limit as the stress that causes the first plastic deformation

The more accurate the strain measurement is, the lower is the stress at
which plastic deformation and nonlinearity can be detected

Offset yield strength construct a straight line parallel to the initial
linear portion of the stressstrain curve, but offset from it by e = 0.002
(0.2%.)

Off-set Yield Strength
The yield strength is taken as the stress level at which this straight line
intersects the stressstrain curve

The rationale is that if the material had been loaded to this stress and then
unloaded, the unloading path would have been along this offset line, resulting
in a plastic strain of e = 0.002 (0.2%)

The advantage of this way of defining yielding is that it is easily reproduced
More Than one Yield Point: Upper and Lower
The stressstrain curves of some materials (e.g., low carbon steels and linear
polymers) have an initial maximum followed by a lower stress

After the initial maximum, at any given instant all of the deformation occurs within
a relatively small region of the specimen

Steels Luders band

Continued elongation occurs by propagation of the Luders band along the gauge
section, rather than by continued deformation within it. Only after the band has
traversed the entire gauge section does the stress rise again


Upper and Lower Yield Point

In the case of linear polymers, the yield strength is usually defined as the initial
maximum stress.

For steels, the subsequent lower yield strength is used to describe yielding. The
initial maximum stress is too sensitive to specimen alignment to be useful. Even
so, the lower yield strength is sensitive to the strain rate.

ASTM standards should be followed. The stress level during Luders band
propagation fluctuates. Some laboratories report the minimum level as the yield
strength and other use the average level.

Repetition of serrations Dynamic strain aging

Fe-C, Al-Mg
Tensile Strength
As long as the engineering stressstrain curve rises

uniform deformation along the length

Max stress before fracture (ductile material)

Localised deformation after max stress (Ultimate Tensile Strength)

Necking or localised deformation at UTS or TS

UTS = Fracture stress (brittle materials)

Very brittle materials (e.g., glass) fracture before they yield. Such materials
have tensile strengths, but no yield stresses

Stress strain curve for a strain hardening material
Figure 3.7. After a maximum on the stressstrain curve, deformation localizes to
form a neck.
Definition of Tensile Strength
Resilience and Toughness

Ability of absorb energy in the elastic range and release it when stress is
removed Resilience

Ability to absorb energy in plastic range Toughness

Spider silk has high toughness

High carbon steel has high resilience


Resilience


Toughness
Tensile specimens
True stress-True strain
) 1 ln(
1
) 1 (
0
0
0
0
0
0 0
0
0
e
e
A
A
L
L
L
L L
L
L
e
AL L A
e s
A
A
A
P
A
P
stress True
+ =
+ = =

=
A
=
=
+ = = = =
c
o
Where
s = engineering stress = P/A
0
e = engineering strain
Power law
n
n
n
K
K
K
) (
0
0
c c o
c o o
c o
+ =
+ =
=
Necking
Onset of non-uniform deformation

Localised thinning of sample

Decrease in load bearing capacity of sample due to reduction in cross
sectional area = Increase in load bearing capacity of sample due to strain
hardening

Homogeneous deformation below this strain
c
o
c
c
o
c
o
c
c
o
c o
n
n
d
d
Kn
d
d
K
n
n
n
n
= =
=
=

1
1
n
d
d
u
=
=
c
o
c
o
Different type of stress-strain curve
Elastic
Brittle material like glass,
ceramics
Elasto-plastic homogenous
Pure metals Cu, Al
Elasto- plastic heterogeneous
Alloys Al-Mg, twinning in Ag
Elasto- plastic heterogeneous
Yield point alloys like steel Fe-C
for crystalline polymer
Structure breakdown
and re-orientation
Rubber, no load drop
complete reversibility
Prasad and Chokshi, Acta Mater 58 (2010) 5724

Super-plasticity

Very large elongation before failure

High homologous temperature

Relative term






Visco-plasticity

Time dependent permanent deformation

Creep

High homologous temperature
(T/T
m
> 0.5)

ceramic
ty erplastici f
metal
ty erplastici f
ceramic
f
metal
f
e e
e e
sup , sup ,
>>
>>
Effect of strain rate and temperature
Stress as strain rate

Remember difference between constant
engineering strain rate (cross head velocity) and
constant true strain rate)

Yield stress as temperature

Strain rate and temperature effects decided by
micro-mechanisms of deformation

Well discuss after understanding dislocations
Different type of tests
Compression test Forming behaviour

Most metal working processes are compressive in nature (rolling, forging, with
exception of wire drawing that is tensile)

H/D ratio important in compression

H/D= 1.5 optimum if >1.5 buckling, if <1.5 barelling

(Hot) Torsion test forming behaviour at large strain

Torsion is best as there is no instability due to necking, buckling or buldging

Hardness test on small samples has compression and hydrostatic stress

Hardness = 3*YS as a general rule

Testing paves way for processing
Compression and Torsion
Hardness
Processing
Original
Compression and tension
along diffraction plane
Shear
Hydrostatic stress
Remember to find the state of stress along the diffraction direction
Also keep in mind that in diffraction, you see the reciprocal space
1
3
1
3
v1 = v2 v1 > v2
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