4.

1: Moving Boundary Work:

It is the work associated with a moving boundary of the system.


Consider the gas enclosed in piston-cylinder device
shown in Fig., the initial pressure of the gas is P, the
total volume is V, and the cross-section area of the
piston is A. If the piston is allowed to move a
distance ds in a quasi-equilibrium manner, the
differential work done during this process is :
CHAPTER (IV)

ENERGY ANALYSIS OF CLOSED SYSTEM
(4-1)
1
The total boundary work done during the entire process as the
piston moves is obtained by adding all the differential works from the
initial state to the final state:


This integral can be evaluated only if we
know the functional relationship between
P and V during the process, which is the
equation of the process path on P_V
diagram.
On this diagram the differential area dA is
equal to PdV which is the differential work.

So, the total area A under the process curve
1_2 is obtained by adding these differential
areas:
2
(4-2)
(4-3)


So, the boundary work done during
a process depends on the path
followed as well as the end states,
as shown in Fig.





The net work done during a cycle is
the difference between the work
done by the system and the work
done on the system.
3
4
Solution:
5
Solution:
6
7
8
Polytropic Process:
It is the process through which, pressure
and volume are often related by
where n and C are constants.

Boundary Work Done During Polytropic Process:
Since,

Then, we have:



Since
9
(4-4)
For special case of n = 1 the boundary work becomes:



This results is equivalent to isothermal process of an ideal gas.

10
11
A piston-cylinder device contains 0.05 m of a gas initially at 200 kPa. At this state,
a linear spring that has a spring constant of 150 kN/m is touching the piston but exerting
no force on it. Now heat is transferred to the gas, causing the piston to rise and to
compress the spring until the volume inside the cylinder doubles. If the cross-sectional
area of the piston is 0.25 m.
Determine:
(a) the final pressure inside the cylinder.
(b) the total work done by the gas.
(c) the fraction of this work done against
the spring to compress it.
12
next slide.
13
14
4.2:Closed System Energy Analysis:
15
16
17
(E-1)
F-1).
18
F-1
19
.(E-1)
20
21
22
23
24
25
F-2).
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F-2
27
4.3: Specific Heat:
Specific heat is defined as the energy required to raise the temperature
of a unit mass of a substance by one degree.
In thermodynamics, we are interested in two kinds of specific heats:
1) Specific heat at constant volume (Cv):
It is defined as the energy required to raise the temperature of a
unit mass of a substance by one degree as the volume is maintained
constant.
2) Specific heat at constant pressure (Cp):
It is defined as the energy required to raise the temperature of a
unit mass of a substance by one degree as the pressure is maintained
constant.


28
Now we attempt to express the specific heats in terms of other
thermodynamic properties.
Consider a fixed mass in a stationary closed system undergoing a constant
volume process (and thus no boundary work done), the conservation of
energy principle:


For this process can be expressed in the differential form as:


The left hand side of this equation represents the net amount of energy
transferred to the system. From the definition of Cv this energy must be
equal to Cv dT, where dT is the differential change in temperature. Thus:


or,
(4-5)
Similarly, an expression for the specific heat at constant pressure Cp can
be obtained by considering a constant pressure process (where a
boundary work is involved), it yields:



4.3: Internal Energy, Enthalpy, and Specific Heats of Ideal Gases:
it was found experimentally (Joule,1843) that for an ideal gas the internal
energy is a function of the temperature only. i.e.,
u = u(T)
Using the definition of enthalpy ( h = u + PV ) and the equation of state of
an ideal gas ( PV = RT ), we have:
h = u +RT
Since R is constant and u = u(T), it follows that the enthalpy of an ideal gas
is also a function of temperature only. i.e.,
h = h(T)

30
(4-6)
(4-7)
(4-8)
(4-9)
Since u, and h depends only on temperature for an ideal gas, the specific
heats Cv and Cp also depends on temperature only. Therefore:

At a given temperature, u, h, Cv, and Cp of an ideal gas have fixed values
regardless of the specific volume or pressure. Thus the partial derivatives
in Eqs. (4-5) and (4-6) can be replaced by ordinary derivatives.

So, the differential changes in the internal energy and enthalpy of an
ideal gas can be expressed as:

du = Cv(T) dT
and
dh = Cp(T) dT

31
(4-10)
(4-11)


Finally, the change in internal energy or enthalpy for an ideal gas
during a process from state 1 to state 2 is determined by integrating these
equations:











32
(4-12)
(4-13)
and



33
Important comments:
To carry out these integrations, we need to have relation for Cv and Cp
as functions of temperature.

At low pressures, all real gases approach ideal gas behavior, and
therefore, their specific heats depends on temperature only. The specific heats
of real gases at low pressures are called ideal-gas specific heats, or zero-
pressure specific heats, and often denoted by Cp0 and Cv0.

Accurate analytical expressions for ideal-gas specific heats, based on
direct measurements or calculation from statistical behavior of molecules, are
available and are given as third-degree polynomials in table (A-2c) for several
gases.
34
35
The integrations in Eqs. 4-12 and 4-13
are straightforward but time consuming. To avoid
these calculations, u and h data for a number of
gases have been tabulated over small
temperature intervals. These tables are obtained
by choosing an arbitrary reference point and
performing the integrations in Eqs. 4-12 and 4-13
by treating state 1 as the reference state. In the
ideal-gas tables that you have, zero Kelvin is
chosen as the reference state, and both the
enthalpy and the internal energy are assigned
zero values at that state, (Tables A-17 to A-25).
36
37
38
A plot of Cp0(T) data for some common
gases is shown in the opposite Figure. It can
be observed through this Fig. that the
specific heats of gases with complex
molecules (molecule with two or more
atoms) are higher and increase with
temperature. Also, the variation of specific
heats with temperature is smooth and may
be approximated as linear over small
temperature intervals. So, the specific
heats function in Eqs. 4-12 and 4-13 can
be replaced by the constant average
specific heat values, (Table A-2b). Then they
can be reformed as:


and


(4-14)
(4-15)
39
Specific heats ratio (k) :
It is defined as:



The specific heat ratio also varies with temperature.
For monatomic gases: k = 1.667.
For diatomic gases, including air k = 1.4 at room temperature.
v
p
C
C
k
(4-16)
40
Finally, there are three ways to determine the internal energy and enthalpy
changes of ideal gases.
1. By using the Cv or Cp relations as a function of temperature and
performing the integrations.
2. By using the tabulated u and h data.
3. By using average specific heats.

41
Specific heats relation of ideal gases:
since h = u + RT Eq. 4-8
then dh = du + RdT
since du = Cv dT and dh = Cp dT Eqs. 4-10 & 4-11
then Cp dT= Cv dT + RdT

i.e.; Cp = Cv + R

on a molar basis, R should be replaced by the universal gas constant Ru ,
i.e.;
Cp = Cv + Ru

42
(4-16)
(4-17)


43
Table A2a, b, c and A17
44
45
(4-17)
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48
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54
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56
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