INPUT CIRCUITS

N. Sreekanth Nayak 08M128

Ashwin Nandagiri 08M107
Suvarna Sohan Mohan 08m152
Harsh L Kansagara 08M120
Shodhan S. 08M144
Undar Shritheja 08M156

Applications

Used for signal conditioning of transducers
Used in any applications where we need high
resolution equipments




CURRENT SENSING CIRCUITS


Principle of working



Resistance of a transducer changes when there
is change in physical quantity which is being
measured, there by, causing a change in
current.

Working
Rm = internal resistance of the circuit
Rt =maximum resistance of the transducer
K =percentage factor ( 0 to 100 %)
Ei =voltage source

By ohms law, we have the current flowing
in the circuit as
I = Ei/(Rm + kRt)

Maximum current flows when k=0; i,e
Imax = Ei/Rm

I/Imax = 1/{ 1 + k(Rt/Rm)}.
This relation is non-linear, which is
undesirable.



The graph shows variation of I/Imax for different
values of k and Rt/Rm.
Higher the value of Rt/Rm, higher is the sensitivity
of the circuit.
Output current depends on voltage. Hence a
constant supply of voltage is needed if calibration is to
be maintained.





Ballast circuits(Voltage
sensitive circuits)

It is a simple variation of the current sensitive circuit.
Voltage sensitive device(Voltmeter) is used in place of current
indicator.
The ballast circuit R
b
is inserted in the manner as R
m
was used in the
previous circuit.

Voltage sensitive circuit
E
i
= Input voltage.
R
b
= Ballast resistance.
R
t
= Maximum value of transducer resistance.
K = % factor vary between 0 and 1.0 (0% and 100%)
depending on the magnitude of the input signal.
E
o
= Voltage across KR
t
.
It is assumed that the voltage measuring or recording device has
infinite resistance so that it does not draw any current.

Output current, i
o
= e
i
(1)


R
b
+KR
t

If e
o
= Voltage across KR
t
, then

Then output voltage , e
o
= i
1
(KR
t
) = e
i
(KR
t
)

(2)


R
b
+KR
t

Therefore, e
o
= (KR
t
)/R
b
(3)


e
i
1+(KR
t
/ R
b
)




For a given circuit, (e
o
/e
i
)

is a measure of the output and
(KR
t
/ R
b
) is a measure of the input.

It is clear from the previous equation (3) that input output
relationship for a Voltage sensitive (ballast) circuit is nonlinear.

Curve shows the relationship between the input output for a ballast circuit.
e
o

e
i

K

Sensitivity is the ratio of change of change in output to change
in input.
Sensitivity , (S) = de
0
= e
i
R
b
R
t
(4)
de
i
(R
b
+KR
t
)
2

From eqn(4) it is clear that the sensitivity is different for
different values of ballast resistance R
b
.
In order to design the circuit so that the sensitivity is
maximum ,an optimum value of R
b
has to be obtained. This is
obtained by differentiating eqn (4) sensitivity w.r.to R
b
,
dS = e
i
R
t
(KR
t
-R
b
) (5)
dR
b
(R
b
+KR
t
)
3




This derivative may be zero under the following 2 conditions,
For R
b
= infinity, which results in minimum sensitivity.
For R
b
= KR
t
, where maximum sensitivity is obtained.

The 2
nd
relation indicates that for full range usefulness the
value of the R
b
must be based on compromise, because R
b
a
constant cannot always have the value of KR
t
, a variable.
However R
b
may be selected to give maximum sensitivity by
setting its value corresponding to the value of KR
t
.
Disadvantages:
Input voltage has to be kept absolutely constant for high
sensitivity.
Requires a voltage regulating source.



Bridge Circuits
The Wheat-stone Bridge
The basic Wheat-stone bridge was developed by
S. H. Christie in 1833
It consists of four resistors connected to form a
quadrilateral, a source of excitation (voltage or
current) connected across one of the diagonals,
and a voltage detector connected across the
other diagonal.
The detector measures the difference between
the outputs of two voltage dividers connected
across the excitation
Voltage Dividers
V2
The Voltage across the resistor R2 is given by
Working of a bridge
Where Vex is the excitation voltage supplied to bridge
Working
Voltage Sensitive Wheat-stone Bridge
When a resistive element changes its resistance in response
to the physical parameter being measured (e.g. a strain
gauge) it is called the active element, while the remaining
resistors are called completion resistors.
If R1 is an active element, then an increase in the resistance of
the active element R1 increases the output voltage. A
decrease in this resistance will decrease the voltage appearing
at the output.
It is conversely true that if R2 is an active element, then an
increase in its resistance would result in a reduction of the
voltage appearing at the output, while a decrease in this
resistance would result in the output voltage increasing.

Assumptions
Advantage
Disadvantage
The Current Sensitive
Wheatstone Bridge
i
g = `
i
i *
(R
2
R
3
-R
1
R
4
)
-------------------------------------------------
R
g
*(R
1
+R
2
+R
3
+R
4
)+(R
2
+R
4
)(R
1
+R
3
)

R
g
is the galvanometer resistance
The Constant Current Bridge

e
o
= i
i *
(R
2
R
3
-R
1
R
4
)
--------------------------
(R
1
+R
2
+R
3
+R
4
)
e
o
is the output voltage.



Wheatstone Deflecton type Bridge
Current Sensitivity can be changed
Zero offset can be done
Can be calibrated to directly read out the
converted values.
Wheatstone Deflecton type Bridge
Current Sensitivity can be changed
Zero offset can be done
Can be calibrated to directly read out
the converted values.
Problems
Ballast circuit
1. A Ballast circuit has to be used for a thermistor which has a
nominal resistance of 100 .
a. What should be the value of ballast resistor R
b
, for

maximum sensitivity at the nominal transducer resistance?
b. If the ballast resistance as calculated in (a) is used along with
an input of 10 volts, what output voltage will be obtained
when the transducer has resistance equal to nominal
resistance?
c. If the conditions of (b) remain same, except the transducer
resistance reduced by 5%, what output voltage will be
indicated?
d. What are the sensitivities for (b) and (c)?

Solution
a) Nominal transducer resistance - R
t
= 100
At nominal resistance of transducer, K = 1
For max sensitivity,
Ballast resistance R
b =
K*R
t
R
b
= 1*100 = 100


b) Output voltage with R
b
= 100
e
o
= K*R
t
/R
b
* e
i ;

1+ K*R
t
/R
b

= 1*100/100 * 10 = 1 * 10 = 5 volts
1+1*100/100 1+1
c) Here K= 0.95
Therefore
e
o
= 0.95*100/100 * 10
1+ 0.95*100/100

= 4.87 volts
d) Sensitivity,
S = e
i
R
b
= 10*100


(R
b
+ KR
t
)
2
(100+K*100)
2


For K=1, S = 0.025 V/

For K=0.95, S= 0.0263 V/
2) A simple ballast circuit is used to measure the output of
pressure pickup. The circuit is designed so that the internal
resistance is equal to 6 times the transducer resistance. A
source of 100V is used to energize the circuit. Calculate the
voltage output for 25, 50, 60 and 80% full load on the
transducer.
Solution
Given R
b
= 6R
t

e
o
= K*R
t
/R
b
* e
i ;

1+ K*R
t
/R
b


= K*1/6 * 100 = 16.7K


1+K*1/6 1+.167K
for K= 0.25 e
o
= 4V; K= 0.5 e
o
= 7.7V
K=0.6 e
o
= 9.1V; K=0.8 e
o
= 11.78V
Bridge circuit
A resistance bridge has configuration as shown in figure in
which R
1
= 120.4 , R
2
= 119.0 and R
3
= 119.7
a) What resistance must R
4

have for resistive balance?

b) If R
4
has a value of 121.2
and the input voltage is
12V dc, what is the output
voltage of the bridge?
Assume it to be voltage
sensitive bridge.
Solution
a) For balancing the bridge,
the condition is R
1
= R
3

R
2
R
4

where R
1
= 120.4 , R
2
= 119.0 and R
3
= 119.7

R
4
= R
3 *
R
2
=118.3
R
1

b) Given, R
4
= 121.2
therefore output voltage is given by
e
o
= R
1
R
4
- R
2
R
3 *
e
i
=(120.4*121.2-119*119.7)* 12


(R
1 +
R
3
)(R
2 +
R
4
) (120.4+119.7)(119+121.2)

= 72.4 mV

Wheatstone Null type Bridge

1
2
=
3
4

Let R2 be the resistive
transducer
R3 and R4 be fixed resistance
R1 be adjustable resistance (
Potentiometer)
Adjust R1 till voltmeter reads
zero
2 = 1
4
3